How to Read Biblical Poetry

What is Poetry?

Definition of Poetry

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines poetry as “a kind of literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of one’s experience or emotions by means of well-crafted language that is chosen for its meaning, sound, and rhythm.”

In his 1968 book, Sound and Sense: An Introduction to Poetry, Laurence Perrine says, “Poetry is a kind of human language that says more, and says it more intensely than does ordinary language.”

How would you describe the voice of the Lord?

In Psalm 29, the word “voice” is the Hebrew word "qol," which means “sound, voice, thunder.” I’m going to read it, as I do, think about how the creative use of language helps us understand the voice of the Lord differently than perhaps the ways we described it just now.

Psalm 29 (ESV)

A Psalm of David.

Ascribe (Give) to the Lord, O heavenly beings,

ascribe to the Lord glory and strength.

Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name;

worship the Lord in the splendor of holiness.

The voice of the Lord is over the waters;

the God of glory thunders,

the Lord, over many waters.

The voice of the Lord is powerful;

the voice of the Lord is full of majesty.

The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars;

the Lord breaks the cedars of Lebanon.

He makes Lebanon to skip like a calf,

and Sirion like a young wild ox.

The voice of the Lord flashes forth flames of fire.

The voice of the Lord shakes the wilderness;

the Lord shakes the wilderness of Kadesh.

The voice of the Lord makes the deer give birth (makes the oaks to shake)

and strips the forests bare,

and in his temple all cry, “Glory!”

The Lord sits enthroned over the flood;

the Lord sits enthroned as king forever.

May the Lord give strength to his people!

May the Lord bless his people with peace!

How does the poetic description of God’s voice help you develop a more wholistic picture of God’s voice?

Characteristics of Poetry Poetry invites you into an imaginative experience in order to communicate more than you’d be able to with plain language alone.

Across cultures, poetry is typically marked by characteristics like:

Density of expression, terseness, and fewer words than normal speech

Intentional, creative use of language through unique word combinations or repetition

Heavy use of imagery and metaphor, which combine images that don’t normally occur to us, like being washed away by chaotic waters representing the idea of defeat in battle.

Poetic Conventions in Different Cultures

Nearly all human cultures that developed a common literature have ways of separating functional, utilitarian language from intentional, expressive, and artistic language, namely, poetry. All cultures also develop their own unique patterns of poetic speech and common conventions.

Metered rhyme is a feature of classic Western poetry such as the familiar poem, “Roses are red, violets are blue, sugar is sweet, and so are you.”

Ancient Greek lyric poetry from the 7th to 5th centuries B.C. primarily used long versus short syllables in patterns, rather than the sound of words. Greek lyric style developed into iambic pentameter in traditional English poetry.

Haiku, the traditional Japanese style of poetry, focuses on line length and syllable structure. A haiku has three lines each with a different number of syllables in the pattern of 5-7-5.

An old silent pond …

A frog jumps into the pond,

splash! Silence again.

--Matsuo Bashō

These different poetic constraints force an economy of expression and compression of thought and language so that words have to perform unusual functions.

Poetic Convention in Ancient Israel

The ancient Israelite poetry preserved for us in the Bible doesn’t fit any kind of master system like meter. However, the Israelites were aware of a certain kind of speech that was poetic, dense, and distinct from normal speech. They even have vocabulary for it.

“Song” (Heb. shir / shirah) = “Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song …” (Exod. 15:1)

“Psalm” (Heb. mizmor) = Many headings to the Psalms have these. “A mizmor of David” (Ps. 3).

“Lament” (Heb. qinah) = “David lamented this qinah over Saul and Jonathan” (2 Sam. 1:17).

These compositions show a unique cultural form of Hebrew poetry that is not a formal system but a series of characteristics. To illustrate these characteristics, here’s a poem by John Hollander from Rhyme’s Reason: A Guide to English Verse.

The Verse of the Hebrew Bible is strange

The meter of Psalms and Proverbs perplexes

It is not a matter of number,

No counting of beats or syllables

Its song is a music of matching,

Its rhythm a kind of paralleling

One line makes an assertion;

The other part expresses in other words

Sometimes a third part will vary yet again

Now, let’s look at some of the specific elements of Hebrew poetry.

Rhythm

Hebrew poetry is shaped into a line-rhythm or verse. It is not metrical (based on syllable counts) but a form of free verse. The word “verse” refers to a description of poetic form. The Oxford English Dictionary says verse is “a succession of words arranged according to natural or artificially created rules, forming a complete line; a verse is one of the lines of a poem or a piece of versification.”

Free verse is a category in the history of poetry named by Israeli scholar Harshav Hrushovsky.

The line in Hebrew poetry is most often

(1) a complete sentence or subordinate clause

(2) consisting of three to five words

(3) marked by repetition and clear end-stop signals.

The Dead Sea Scrolls show the earliest divisions of Hebrew poetry into line-columns.

Terseness

To be terse or concise means to use as few words as possible to communicate as much as possible. In “Introduction to Biblical Poetry,” Adele Berlin says, “The terseness of biblical poetry gives the impression that each word or phrase is more loaded with meaning, since fewer words must bear the burden of the message” (4).

Parallelism

In simple terms, parallelism refers to two things presented next to each other to show their relation. The short sayings in the book of Proverbs are written using this poetic form.

The correspondence of one verse or line with another, I call Parallelism. When a proposition is delivered, and a second is subjoined to it, or drawn under it, equivalent, or contrasted with it, in sense; or similar to it in the form of grammatical construction; these I call parallel lines; and the words or phrases answering one to another in the corresponding line, I call parallel terms. Robert Lowth, commentary on Isaiah, 14.

The proverbs are cast in this poetic form. In fact, the word "proverb" in Hebrew (mashal) means “a comparison.”

Both lines are positive “better than” sayings. • Proverbs 16:32

A Being slow to anger is better than being a warrior

B And one who rules their passions than one who captures a city

The lines match in form, but they contrast in meaning. Proverbs 13:3

A One who guards his mouth preserves his life

B One who opens wide his lips comes to ruin

Line A describes a behavior, and line B describes its result. Proverbs 19:17

A One who lends to the Lord, one gracious to the poor

B And he will repay him for his good deed

However, the biblical authors are not simply rhyming thoughts or saying the same thought in different words. James Kugel and Robert Alter both wrote important works on biblical poetry showing how the relationship between these parallel lines can be really diverse, but the B line is always one of progression, heightening, and intensification.

Psalm 62:11-12 One thing God has spoken two things I have heard: that power belongs to God, and covenant loyalty is yours, O Lord. For you will recompense each person according to their deeds.’

Let’s look at Isaiah 11:1-5 together.

There are six groups of lines—five are couplets (A line + B line) and one is a quintuplet (5 lines). Each one expresses parallel statements that are more than the sum of their parts. The editors of our Bibles help us see this even where our verse numbers don’t necessarily agree

Parallelism creates an infinite number of ways to communicate creatively. For example, in the book of Psalms, the poets ask God to hear their prayer 29 times, and none of them are identical (Berlin, Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism, 127-130).

At its root, parallelism is a form of comparison and analogy. It assumes that to truly understand and experience a thing, you need to grasp not only that thing but also another thing that is both similar and distinct at the same time. This is an associative mode of thought—comparative cognition that has been turned into an art form. We grasp a thing when we have thoroughly considered what it is like (comparison), and what it is not like (contrast).

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is an artistic technique turned into a poetic principle. This type of poetic style is a wonderful way to express complex thoughts through pairing unexpected words or images in order to communicate more. This “speaking in pairs” creates opportunities to use multiple words and images to communicate one core idea from many angles. This is done through the juxtaposition itself, rather than by using more and more words to convey meaning. This is a common technique in cinema and filmmaking.

It remains true to this day, that the juxtaposition of two separate shots by splicing them together, resembles not so much a simple sum of one shot plus one shot. Rather, it resembles a new creation. The result is qualitatively distinguishable from each of the elements viewed separately … This is the effect of the montage: each piece exists no longer as something unrelated, but as a given particular representation of a larger common theme that now penetrates all of the shotpieces. This juxtaposition of these partial details calls to life and forces into light any general qualities that each piece expresses that might bind them together into a single whole, a single image that the spectator experiences. Sergei Eisenstein [famous Russian film director], The Film Sense, 24.

Juxtaposition in Psalms 104:24-26 there are three sets of Juxtapositions

24 O Lord, how many are your works!

In wisdom you have made them all;

the earth is full of your possessions.

25 There is the sea, great and broad,

in which are swarms without number,

animals both small and great.

26 There the ships move along,

Leviathan, which you have formed to sport in it.

Poetic Ambiguity

Poetry is a form of speech that achieves a unique balance of maximum communication and ambiguity at the same time.

If we could hear God talking, making his will manifest in words of Hebrew language, what would it sound like? Poetry is our best human model of intricately rich communication. It’s not only solemn, weighty, and forceful, but also densely woven with complex internal connections, meanings, and implications. It makes perfect sense why divine speech in the Hebrew Bible is most often represented as poetry … The form of this divine poetry helps explain why these texts have touched the lives of millions of readers far removed in time, space, and situation from the small groups of ancient Hebrews who produced and first read these texts. Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry, 141.

Nearly all messianic prophecy in the Hebrew Bible is written in poetic form. Therefore, it has a level of ambiguity. Genesis 3:14-15

14 The Lord God said to the serpent,

“Because you have done this,

cursed are you more than all cattle,

and more than every beast of the field;

on your belly you will go,

and dust you will eat

all the days of your life;

15 and I will put enmity

between you and the woman,

and between your seed and her seed;

he shall bruise you on the head,

and you shall bruise him on the heel.

Questions up to this point?

Larger Scale Poetic Conventions in Biblical Poetry

Chiasm

The principles of biblical poetry (repetition, rhythm, parallelism, and juxtaposition) are used together to make a complete poem. This large scale structure is called chiasm, or symmetry. Chiasm is a literary device where lines of the poem parallel each other in a mirror-image or reverse order (a>b; b>a). Here are some examples of chiasm in biblical poetry.

ABAB Form • Psalm 33:10-11

A Yahweh frustrated the plans of the nations;

B he reduces to nothing the schemes of the peoples,

A Yahweh’s plan endures forever,

B the schemes of his heart, from generation to generation.

ABBA Form • Jeremiah 17:7

A Blessed is the one who trusts

B in Yahweh

B so that Yahweh

A is their source of trust.

Psalm 137:5-6

A If I forget you Jerusalem

B let my right hand wither;

B Let my tongue stick to my palate

A if I don’t remember you.

Psalm 67 [composed as a large chiasm]

A May God be gracious to us and bless us

and make his face shine upon us, Selah

B that your ways may be known on earth,

your salvation among all nations.

C May the peoples praise you, O God;

may all the peoples praise you.

D May the nations be glad and sing for joy,

E for you rule the peoples with justice

D’ and guide the nations of the earth. Selah

C' May the peoples praise you, O God;

may all the peoples praise you.

B' Then the earth will yield its harvest,

A and God, our God, will bless us. Some other larger scale structures used in biblical poetry include acrostic, refrain, and inclusio.

Acrostic

This is an alphabet poem, where the lines of the poem each start with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in order (line 1 with a, line 2 with b, etc.). See Psalm 119, where the first eight verses begin with the first Hebrew letter (aleph), and the next eight begin with the second Hebrew letter (beth). Other acrostic poems include Psalm 9-10 (together); Psalms 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 145; Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 1-4; Nahum 1:2-8.

Refrain

Refrain means the poetic lines are repeated in order to indicate divisions (similar to the choruses of popular worship songs and hymns). For example, take the phrase “his love endures forever,” which is the second line of every verse of Psalm 136. Psalms 42-43 (42:5,11; 43:5) and Psalm 80 (vv. 3, 7, 19) also use refrains.

Inclusio

Inclusio refers to when the poetry repeats the opening words of the psalm at the end of the poem. For example, “Praise [Bless] Yahweh, O my soul” in Psalm 103 and “Praise Yahweh” [“Hallelujah!”] in Psalms 8, 113, and 146 through 150.

Stanzas

A stanza is a movement of poetic thought that usually has two to five parallel lines. Stanzas are marked by paragraph spaces in our English translations.

Poetic Devices

The biblical authors used unique poetic devices in their poetry that allowed them to elicit response from the audience and make connections in the biblical text.

Shift in Speaking Voice

The voice of the speaker will often shift without explicit notice. The reader is left to ponder the significance of these shifts. See Psalm 2 and 51 for examples.

Confession

Many biblical poems include an admission of sin and guilt to God, where the poet cries out in prayer. For examples of this, see Psalm 51:3-6, Daniel 9:5-11, and Nehemiah 1:6b-7.

Hymn

This refers to a poetic song that praises God either for his character (see “praise”) or for his actions of kindness toward his people (see “thanksgiving”). There are frequent examples in both the Old and New Testaments, such as Judges 5, Isaiah 61:10-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, and Revelation 5:9-13.

Curse (“Imprecation”)

An imprecation is a poetic prayer in which the poet asks God to punish the wicked. See Psalm 69:2228,109:6-20, 137:8-9; Jeremiah 18:21-23; and Lamentations 3:64-66 for examples of this.

Petition

This poetic prayer is a direct plea for God asking for help with a specific human need. See Psalm 7:1-2 and Acts 4:29-30 for examples.

Prayer

In the Bible, a prayer is a direct human (quoted) speech addressed to God. Prayers include confession, petition, praise, and thanksgiving.

Poetic Styles Used in Psalms

All cultures form genres or conventions for specific types of songs and poems. American pop music, for example, uses the pattern AABA: verse + chorus/verse + chorus/bridge/verse +chorus. Hebrew authors used the genres of lament, praise, and thanksgiving in their poems.

Lament

A lament is a psalm in which the author complains to God about his current hardships and calls upon God to deliver him. Typical elements include:

Opening cry or question (Psalm 22:1-2)

Description of circumstances or enemies (Psalm 22:6-8, 12-18)

Petition, or asking God to do something to help, sometimes with a request that God punish his enemies (“imprecation”) and/or an explanation of reasons why God should act (Psalm 22:11, 19-21)

Statement of confidence and faith in God (Psalm 22:3-5, 9-10, 27-31)

Vow which promises to thank God when deliverance does come (Psalm 22:22-24)

At one table, see you if you can find the elements of Lament in Psalm 22.

Praise

A praise is a specific kind of psalm that honors God for his character and/or attributes. For examples, see Psalms 113, 117, and 146-150. Elements include:

A call to praise (Psalm 113:1)

A list of those who should praise Yahweh (Psalm 113:1b)

Reasons for praise (Psalm 113:4-9a)

Concludes with the phrase “Praise Yahweh!” [“Hallelujah!”] (Psalm 113:9b)

At one table find the elements of Praise in Psalm 113

Thanksgiving

Thanksgiving poems refer to psalms that honor God for his gracious actions toward people. For examples, see Psalms 30, 34, 66, 73, 105-106, and 111-118. Elements include:

A call to give thanks (Psalm 116:1-2)

A description of distress before deliverance (Psalm 116:3)

Praise to God for his compassion and faithfulness in deliverance (Psalm 116:5-9)

A general statement about how God cares for all his people (Psalm 116:14)

A Final statement of praise (Psalm 116:19)

At one table find the elements of Thanksgiving in Psalm 116