Revelation Chapter Two

The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Ephesus)

‌EPHESUS (Ἔφεσος, Ephesos). On the west coast of Asia Minor. Made the capital of the Roman province of Asia Minor by Augustus (27 BC—AD 14). Ephesus is the setting for Acts 19. Paul taught daily there for two years (Acts 19:9). The elders from Ephesus came to see Paul on his last journey to Jerusalem (Acts 20:17–18), and in 1 Cor 15:32, Paul says that he fought the beasts there. The city was originally founded ca. 1000 BC by the Greeks. It came under Roman control in 133 BC.

Location

‌Ephesus was located at the mouth of the Cayster River on the Aegean coast—in the Southwestern corner of present day Turkey. Roads from the city spread out in every direction along the coast and through the interior of the province.

‌Population

‌Ephesus was the third largest city in the Roman empire. Its population is estimated to have been around 250,000 during the time of early Christianity. The ethnic make-up of the inhabitants of Ephesus included (but was not limited to): Lydians, Ionians, Greeks, a native population of Anatolians (Strelan, Paul, Artemis, 33), and a large Jewish constituency (Josephus, Antiquities 14.225–27; 16.162–68, 172–273). Rome sent many of its citizens to its provinces—as a colonial strategy—to protect the interests of the Empire.

‌Commerce

‌During the reign of Augustus, the city experienced substantial growth, benefiting economically from the Pax Romana (Peace of Rome). Ephesus was a major commercial port, but the harbor required constant dredging. It seems that remarkable feats of engineering kept the harbors of Ephesus from silting up. Silting was a common problem for all Mediterranean ports at the mouths of rivers because the small tides were inadequate to clean them out (Stark, Cities of God, 42).

‌Some of the major public buildings discovered at the site of ancient Ephesus include the famous temple of Artemis, public squares, stadiums, gymnasiums, and theaters. One significant theater built into the side of Mount Pion accommodated about 24,000 people.

‌The city was home to various artisans. The artisans were considered of lower social status, in part because they worked with their hands (Plutarch, Pericles 2.1–2). The only basis for their social identity was the wealth they might secure from their craft (Witherington, The Acts of the Apostles, 593).

The Artemis shrine in Ephesus provided the area with a lucrative tourist business from pilgrims traveling to the temple. In addition, the temple served as a financial institution and lent out money from the wealth deposited at the shrine (Stark, Cities of God, 42). The temple was perceived to be a safe place to store resources because no one dared to violate its sacred space (Dio Chrysostom, Rhod. 31:54). However, this did not prevent corruption and inappropriate use of the funds by temple officials (Trebilco, “Asia,” 343–344).

‌Ephesus acquired its first imperial temple during the reign of the emperor Domitian (ca. AD 81–96). For a city to be the owner or warden of an imperial temple was very prestigious.

‌Religious Beliefs

‌During the first century, Ephesus was home to various religious beliefs. People in Ephesus participated in worship of Artemis (Diana), a goddess of fertility, magic, and astrology (Arnold, Ephesians, 19). The Greeks identified the fertility goddess as Artemis and the Romans as Diana. Varieties of animal bones have been discovered around the shrine of this deity, evidence of the sacrifices that were likely a part of this cult (Dieter Knibbe, Via Sacra, 142).

‌The Artemis statue at Ephesus has many breasts on the upper torso. No one has been able to explain this image. A variety of theories have been offered, associating her breasts with symbols including eggs, nuts, bull testicles, symbols of the zodiac, and jewelry, among others (Brinks, “Great Is Artemis,” 779).

‌Excavated inscriptions portray that Artemis as a savior (Trebilco, “Asia,” 291) who was able to answer prayer (Trebilco, “Asia,” 291). She was considered an extremely powerful deity with the ability to compel the passion of a woman toward a man (Arnold, Ephesians, 22). Her perceived powers may have come from the legend that she came directly from heaven (Arnold, Ephesians, 22). Documents from AD 104 attest to the strength and popularity of the Artemis religion. Artemis was not the only deity worshiped in the city. Other deities venerated were Roma, Isis, and Sarapis—just to name a few (Horsley, “The Inscriptions,” 49). Evidence reveals that the citizens of Ephesus worshiped up to fifty different gods and goddesses.

‌The imperial cult had religious and political dimensions for the people in Ephesus. The cult bestowed emperors with honors similar to those given the gods, such as festivals, games, temples, and statues. Shrines and statues were erected as an honor to the emperor by his grateful subjects (Trebilco, The Early Christians, 36). An inscription connected to a statue of Emperor Hadrian refers to him as a “founder and savior” (Trebilco The Early Christians, 36).

‌Gnosticism—a religious movement that stressed a superior philosophy—was likely present in the marketplace of religious beliefs in Ephesus. Gnosticism viewed knowledge as a gift of salvation from above, joining the knower and the deity (Barth, Ephesians 1–3, 14).

‌The practice of magic was also popular in Ephesus, primarily among the poor and uneducated (Philo, Vit. soph. 523, 590). In Hellenistic thought, magic was the belief in a spirit world influenced virtually every aspect of life (Witherington, The Acts of the Apostles, 577). Ephesus was known as a place of demonic activity (Philo, Vit. Apoll. 4.10). Because of the popularity of magic in Ephesus, the phrase “Ephesian writings” was used to describe any documents that contained magic formulas and spells (Trebilco, “Asia,” 314). Demons were sometimes considered the cause of sickness and diseases. A few decades after Paul left Ephesus, a major plague hit the city. An exorcist was called in to deal with the situation. Once the demon was defeated, the plague left the city (Trebilco, “Asia,” 313).

‌Biblical References

‌The city of Ephesus is mentioned in 1 Cor 15:32, where Paul states that he fought wild beasts in Ephesus. The phrase might refer to actual beasts. Alternatively, it may be a metaphor for Paul’s opponents (Malherbe, “The Beasts at Ephesus,” 71–80). Finally, the term might have a demonic shade of meaning and refer to evil spirits (Williams, “An Apocalyptic and Magical,” 48).

‌The Acts of the Apostles record that Paul visited Ephesus on his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 20:17–38). Acts relates several events in the city during Paul’s time there. It was in Ephesus that Priscilla and Aquila taught Apollos a more complete understanding of God (Acts 18:26). In Ephesus, Paul convinced twelve disciples of John the Baptist to receive Christian baptism (Acts 19:1–4), and he healed many diseases—even through his aprons and handkerchiefs (Acts 19:11–12). According to Acts 19:9, Paul had discussions daily in the lecture hall of Tyrannus at Ephesus. Tyrannus might have been a regular lecturer at the hall or its owner.

The seven sons of Sceva attempted to use Jesus’ name to conduct their exorcisms in the city (Acts 19:13–17). Newly converted Christians burned their magical books in the town of Ephesus (Acts 19:18–20). The riot of the silversmiths occurs at a theater in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–40). The riot occurred because Christianity decreased the sales of the cult of Artemis.

‌In many manuscripts, the Letter to the Ephesians’ title and opening lines reference Ephesus; however, the words “in Ephesus” (Eph 1:1) are absent from some of the oldest and most reliable manuscripts. Ephesians may have been intended for Christians living in the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the capital (Brown, An Introduction, 626–627). The letter may not have been addressed to a particular local congregation, but to all. From Ephesus, it could have been circulated to other churches in the province.

‌Ephesus was the location from which most of Paul’s letters originated—1 Corinthians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon, and the largest portion of 2 Corinthians.

‌In the book of Revelation, the church at Ephesus is the first congregation mentioned in the letters to the seven churches (Rev 2:1–7). The letter refers to the Nicolaitans in Ephesus—a group that is difficult to identify—that was likely condoning immorality among the congregation at Ephesus.

‌EPHESUS, ARCHAEOLOGY OF Reviews the archaeology of the site of Ephesus, a city on the west coast of Asia Minor.

‌History of Excavations

‌The site of ancient Ephesus has been the subject of archaeological inquiry for well over 150 years. In 1863, J. T. Wood began excavating a site he believed was the location of the ancient Temple of Artemis (the Artemision), one of the seven wonders of the Graeco-Roman world (Wood, Discoveries, vii). After several false leads, he announced in 1869 that he had definitively discovered the Temple of Artemis (Ervine, “John Turtle Wood,” 376). During his search, he also uncovered the Odeum or Bouleterion, the Tomb of Luke, and the Great Theater (Wood, Discoveries, 42–96).

‌Over the past century, various archaeologists have conducted excavations at Ephesus on behalf of the Austrian Archaeological Association. In the early 20th century, Otto Benndorf conducted investigations that revealed the harbor buildings, the Tetragonos Agora, the Library of Celsus, and Saint Mary’s Church (Benndorf, Forschungen in Ephesos 1). Excavations following World War I revealed the bath and gymnasium, the Basilica of Saint John, and the Cemetery of the Seven Sleepers (Krinzinger). Work halted during World War II but resumed in the 1950s under Franz Miltner and Hermann Vetters, who excavated Terrace House 2 and the Prytaneion (Oster, “Ephesus as a Religious Center,” 1688–91).

From 1980–90 Friedrich Krinzinger focused on making many of the previously excavated buildings available to the public, including Terrace House 2. Since then, other buildings have been similarly reconstructed, preserved, and opened to the public, including the Nymphaeum Traiani (or Serapion), the Memmius Monument, and the Library of Celsus (Krinzinger). Current work in Ephesus is focused on noninvasive investigation and analysis of previous discoveries.

Significant Structures

The most significant buildings in Ephesus in the first century include:

• The Temple of Artemis;

• The Great Theater;

• The Magnesian Gate;

• The Tomb of Luke;

• The Upper Agora;

• The Tetragonos Agora;

• The Bouleterion or Odium;

• The Temple of Dea Roma and Divus Iulius;

• The Harbor Gate;

• The Serapion.

Many of these structures were either built or rebuilt during or after the reign of Augustus (Trebilco, “Asia,” 307).

The Great Theater is one of the largest Roman amphitheaters that has been uncovered. It was built in the first half of the third century BC and may have originally seated 20,000 people. In the first century, Claudius (ruled AD 41–54), Nero (ruled AD 54–68), and Trajan (ruled AD 98–117) each expanded the theater in different ways. Claudius made the most extensive changes, adding seating for another 4,000 people (Trebilco, “Asia,” 348–49). The theater was built into the western side of Mount Pion overlooking the colonnaded street that ran down to the harbor; it was thus visible to those visiting the city.

The agora served as both the marketplace of Ephesus and the site to conduct business. Its central location in town made it a convenient place for municipal officials to fulfill their duties in its basilica (Arnold, “Ephesus,” 249).

The prytaneion was located opposite of the agora. It offered an official location for political life in Ephesus. Inscriptions within the building suggest that the prytaneion also held a strong religious role in the first century (Oster, “Ephesus as a Religious Center,” 1688–91).

The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Smyrna)

SMYRNA (Σμύρνα, Smyrna). Ancient city on the west coast of Asia Minor, situated at the head of the gulf into which the Hermus River flows. Smyrna was located 40 miles north of Ephesus on the border between Aeolis to the north and Ionia to the south (Yamauchi, New Testament, 55). The site of ancient Smyrna is the present-day Turkish city of Izmir.

Smyrna is one of the seven cities addressed in Revelation (Rev 1:4; 2:8). It was one of the seven postal districts—situated on a circular route—that made up the most crucial part of the Roman province of Asia (Ford, Revelation, 382). Paul or one of his companions may have introduced Christianity to Smyrna (see Acts 19:9–10, 26).

History and Culture

Smyrna was famous for its beauty. Apollonius of Tyana marveled at how Mount Pagus was crowned with a circle of beautiful public buildings (Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 4.7). The historian Strabo remarked on the city’s beauty, wealth, and fine wines (Strabo, Geography 14.1.15). In AD 29, seven cities competed for the right to build a temple to the emperor Tiberius. Smyrna was chosen, and became the “temple warden” (Tacitus, Annals 4.55–56). It acquired another temple under the emperor Hadrian. Archaeologists have discovered coins portraying Nero, dedications to the emperors Titus and Domitian, and statues of Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian (Yamauchi, New Testament, 58). These artifacts all demonstrate Smyrna’s devotion to the emperor.

During the Graeco-Roman period, the city had a population over 100,000, including a Jewish presence (Yamauchi, New Testament, 55). Some people in the Jewish community in certain cities of Asia Minor may have collaborated with Rome against a Christian minority. There is evidence that Jews in Smyrna participated in the second-century martyrdom of Polycarp (Mart. Pol. 13.1, 17.2).

Commerce

Smyrna was an important seaport in Asia Minor because of its location on the edge of the trade route into Asia Minor (Ford, Revelation, 394). Throughout the Roman period, Smyrna excelled in medicine and science (Strabo, Geography 12.8.20). It was home to guilds of basket-fishermen, tanners, silversmiths, and goldsmiths (Harland, “Sphere of Contention,” 55). Membership in these guilds included sacrificing to a pagan deity—and likely to the emperor as well (Kraybill, Imperial Cult, 196).