Eternal Kingdom Notes
We have previously noted how these monarchal bishops came into existence. The chairmanship of the elders became a permanent position and the word bishop was applied to the holder of this office. Soon this bishop was elevated in authority over the elders. Each congregation had its own bishop, and gradually the city bishops grew in prestige over the country bishops, absorbing their functions. This was the stage of development at the time of the council of Nicaea.
We have already noticed the Synod in Rome called to decide the matter of ordination by a traitor. This was held by Constantine’s order.
Throughout all of the work of Constantine in his efforts to unify and organize the church there is no idea of any centralized church organization. The bishop of Rome had no position above other bishops.
Constantius
In 359 he assembled the bishops of the West at Rimina to discuss further the doctrine of Arius.
In 359 he assembled the bishops of the West at Rimina to discuss further the doctrine of Arius.
Constantius, the son of Constantine, continued his father’s policy of calling the bishops together to settle disturbances
However, the bishop of Rome was not pleased with these developments, which were attempts to reinstitute Arianism. He accordingly called together ninety bishops in Rome and took a stand against Arianism. The facts show that the Bishop of Rome had nothing to do with this first general council. He himself did not attend, and less than ten of the 318 were from the West. If the bishop of Rome had “selected” the delegates the Western bishops would have been more numerous. It was rather the emperor who convened the council
West
It is clear that at the beginning of the fourth century the organization of the church had not developed into any centralized control. By 359, as we have seen, the bishop of Rome was claiming authority outside his diocese. In the same letter quoted above, he condemns the synod at Rimini because “they assembled without the sanction of the bishop of Rome, whose opinion ought to have been consulted before that of any other bishop.” In spite of these claims the bishop of Rome had no authority outside his diocese.
The churches in the West, however, began to exalt the bishop of Rome. They eventually gave him the title pope (papa) and considered him the universal head of the church. The process by which exaltation developed may be clearly traced.
traced.
Col. 1:18 ; Matt 23:9
The council of Chalcedon had decreed the two were equal.
Until this time there were five Metropolitans: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople and Jerusalem.
The council of Chalcedon had decreed the two were equal.
From the first distinction between elder and bishop there may be seen a steady development in organization in the direction of one universal head of the church.
church
At the council of Nicaea (325) there was affected an organization in the church parallel to Constantine’s organization of the Roman government.
In the first
prestige of Rome
capital city of the world
reputation
benevolence and sound doctrine
tradition was quite strong that Peter and Paul had founded the church
Leo thus became the first pope
Leo thus became the first pope. His claims did not stand unchallenged but remained steadfast nevertheless. Weaker men who succeeded him were not able to defend these claims successfully, and after a period of ascendency for the bishops of Constantinople, another strong personality became bishop of Rome. Gregory I, who was also given the title “the Great,” ruled from 590 to 604.
That the development of a pope was a gradual process is clearly seen. None of the Apostolic Fathers evidence such a situation. The Apologists and the bishops of the early councils never had to reckon with papal authority. Christians today who respect the authority of the New Testament are forced to recognize the entire hierarchy as a human development which is to be rejected in favor of the simple organization found in the New Testament—the last Will and Testament of Jesus Christ.
The Ecumenical Councils
ecumenical
refers to the first seven councils to which all of the bishops were invited.
The term ecumenical means universal or worldwide in extent. As applied to church councils it refers to the first seven councils to which all of the bishops were invited. They were held at: Nicaea, 325; Constantinople, 381; Ephesus, 431; Chalcedon, 451; Constantinople, 553; Constantinople, 680; and Nicaea, 787.
the Roman theologians maintain that the church as an organization does have the right to speak for God and that the bishops in council cannot err.
the Roman theologians maintain that the church as an organization does have the right to speak for God and that the bishops in council cannot err.
After the rise of the pope as universal head of the church there was a conflict over who had the final authority, the pope or the council. During the time we are considering, the council claimed that it had the final authority but later the pope gained ascendancy over the councils.
Constantine called this first general council to meet in Nicaea in Asia Minor, June 19, 325. Its purpose was to settle the controversy over the nature of Christ. Arius,
During the council popular feeling supported Alexander, bishop of Alexandria and Athanasius who was the chief spokesman against Arius. The council excommunicated Arius and drew up the first creed. It also settled a difference between the East and West over the time to observe Easter, decreeing that it must always be observed on Sunday. The council also created the office of Metropolitan, or Patriarch, by exalting the bishops of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch.
The council also created the office of Metropolitan, or Patriarch, by exalting the bishops of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch.
council excommunicated Arius
drew up the first creed.
drew up the first creed
The council and its creed did not remove Arianism. Although only two bishops stood with Arius in this condemnation, many of the bishops had signed the creed without agreeing to it.
This Arian ascendancy, however, was not to last. Strong men arose to oppose this doctrine because it tended to lessen the divinity of Christ. Many synods were held and the Arians seemed to lose all sense of integrity. In their efforts to bring discredit upon Athanasius, many false charges were brought against his moral character.
Unitarianism, which says there is true deity only in God the Father and Jesus was purely human.
The Emperor Theodosius convoked the second general council in Constantinople in May, 381. One hundred fifty bishops attended. Their first decision was that the position taken by the three hundred and eighteen bishops of Nicaea was the truth and that this doctrine “shall not be set aside but shall remain dominant.”
A second important decision had to do with the nature of the Holy Spirit.
Holy Spirit
was on the level of the angels
The council also decreed that Christ was human as well as divine.
In order to emphasize that Jesus was truly divine at the time of birth the theologians began to call Mary the mother of God (Theotokos). This was not done to exalt Mary, but to emphasize the divinity of her child.
Nestorius denied that the divine nature was truly united with the body of Jesus. He taught that Mary gave birth to the human body only, and therefore she should not be called the “mother of God.”
Theodosius
Theodosius, the emperor, called a third council in 431 to meet in Ephesus.
The council decreed that Christ had perfect unity in His being and personality and that He was not of two different parts joined together in some mechanical way as Nestorius had taught.
431
Ephesus
From this time on the statement “Mary, the mother of God,” is commonly used. It was not used to exalt Mary, but rather to exalt Jesus, her son, as God. The statement, however, was soon removed from the controversy that called it forth. The divinity of Christ became generally accepted. Then the emphasis in the statement was changed and Mary began to be exalted as though she were the source of Christ’s divine nature.
Mary began to be exalted as though she were the source of Christ’s divine nature.
Mary began to be exalted as though she were the source of Christ’s divine nature.
Marsian
The controversy over the nature of Christ continued in the church. As Nestorius had given Christ two natures, Eutyches said that after the incarnation the two natures were fused into one—the divine. This again minimized the humanity of Christ, and to try again for a settlement of this question Marsian, who became emperor upon the death of Theodosius in 450, called the council of Chalcedon.
of Chalcedon.
Chalcedon
To this council, Leo, the bishop of Rome, presented a document condemning the teaching of Eutyches.
The decree says that Christ is:
truly God and truly man
This council also decreed that the bishop of Constantinople was due all of the rights and powers bestowed upon the bishop of Rome. That as Rome ruled the West, Constantinople would rule the East.
The doctrine of Eutychus, that after the incarnation Christ had only one nature, continued after its official condemnation. This is true of all of the decisions of councils. It is impossible to change ideas through legislation. The councils accomplished nothing except to draw up a statement that might help in clarifying thinking.
It is impossible to change ideas through legislation. The councils accomplished nothing except to draw up a statement that might help in clarifying thinking.
The doctrine of Eutychus was called Monophysitism.
Monophysitism. (Mono, one; Physis, nature).
called Monophysitism
This theory so disturbed the churches in the East and persisted to such a degree that the Emperor Justinian called a council to meet in Constantinople in 553. At this time the bishops strongly condemned this theory. Before the decision was finally reached, however, the bishop of Rome as well as the Emperor and other influential leaders had changed opinions several times.
Emperor Justinian
Emperor Justinian
Constantinople
553
strongly condemned this theory.
(Mono, one; Physis, nature)
As Monophysitism had declared that the divine nature of Christ made inactive His human nature, there arose a companion theory that Christ had only a divine will. This is known as Monotheletism (Mono, one; Thelma, will). Those holding this view taught that although Christ had two natures, He had only one personality and only one will. If He had two wills He would have been two persons.
Monotheletism (Mono, one; Thelma, will).
He would have been two persons.
678
Poganatus
678
Poganatus
The idea that Christ had two wills was sustained by the council, and those who said Christ had only one will were condemned.
The chief reason for the Nicaean council of 787 was to settle a disturbance over the use of images in the church. This is known as the “iconoclastic controversy.”
“icon”
“iconoclastic controversy.”
An “icon” was a representation of a true historical person. It is believed that this type of Christian art began in Syria. One of the favorite subjects was the crucified Christ. Constantia, the sister of Constantine, wrote Eusebius and asked that he send her an “image of Christ.” Eusebius was shocked at this and wrote back that images were forbidden by the Law, that they were unknown in the churches and that to have such would be to follow pagan idolatry. He went on to say that Christians have the living Christ and do not need artificial images of Him.
From the fourth century, images and pictures came into use as teaching aids. As the study of the Bible itself declined, icons were relied upon to a greater extent.
As the study of the Bible itself declined, icons were relied upon to a greater extent.
The crucifix came into use as an aid to worship and as superstition developed these icons took on a special significance for the ignorant. People began to fondle and kiss them and bow down before them in the same way that pagans were doing before their idols.
The emperors were alarmed at this situation, but the bishops of the West, especially the pope, favored the use of the icons. They became an important part of the Roman Catholic religion eventually.
They became an important part of the Roman Catholic religion eventually.
John, bishop of Damascus, defended the use of images and said that God was in the images in the same way that Christ was in the Lord’s Supper and that the image is an actual representation of the Invisible. He believed that the common people could not visualize Christ apart from a material representation.
The emperor, however, by imperial edict cleared the churches in the East of their images. This was no sooner done than word of it reached Pope Gregory III in Rome. The pope took immediate action, and in 731 excommunicated the emperor and all church officials who would not restore the images.
754
Constantine VI
Constantine VI
754
The council restored the images to the churches but said worship should be given to God alone and the images could receive no more than veneration.
As was to be expected, this council did not solve the problem
Finally, in 860 a Council at Constantinople decreed that the images should be “worshipped with the same honor as the books of the holy gospels.”
“worshipped with the same honor as the books of the holy gospels.”
holy gospels.”
These councils reflect the confusion which arose when men tried to harmonize human philosophy and Christianity. The councils settled no problems and each controversy had to wear itself out in time. The writing of creeds, which was meant to bring unity, forced open division and crystallized the differences. No decisions were made without lengthy discussion. At times the decision was adopted by a very small majority and that obtained by the power of eloquence in one individual. With the same eloquence on the opposite side of the question the decision, condemned as heresy, might have been praised as orthodoxy. If the controversy over images had come to the front while emperors dominated the councils rather than later after the pope had gained power, one wonders how much difference it would have made in the development of Romanism.
The increase of heresy led the bishops to desire more centralization of authority and a set pattern of doctrine. The New Testament was recognized as authoritative, but they believed it needed an authoritarian interpretation.
authoritarian interpretation
authoritarian interpretation
The word Catholic began to be used in the second century. Its primary meaning is “universal.” The church from the beginning was the universal church of Christ. In this sense it may still correctly be called Catholic.
The word Catholic
SACERDOTALISM
The New Testament teaches that Christ is the only mediator between God and man.
man
soon a priestly class was developed and the priests began to do things for the common Christians that, they were told, they could not do for themselves. This was not only a retrogression to Jewish days but was also a compromise with paganism. If the ministers were to be priests they had to interpret the items of worship in such a way as to give themselves special functions and to justify their position.
The priestly idea grew up with the episcopacy
The priestly idea grew up with the episcopacy. The administration of the Lord’s Supper and baptism became the sole privilege of the bishop. As the bishop enlarged his responsibilities he authorized elders to perform these services. The services then became official in nature and could be performed only by a specially ordained individual. From this point on the full priesthood required only a little time to develop. Along with these developments was a general increase of ceremonialism. Simple services became ritualistic.