OT Survey - 3 - Introduction to the Pentateuch

All material based on A Survey of the Old Testament. Andrew E Hill and John H Walton. Additional material used appears in the reference section at the bottom

— The Pentateuch refers to the first five books of the Old Testament

— It is Greek meaning “five scrolls”

— It was popularized by the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria in the first century

— The Pentateuch stands first in the three-fold division of the Hebrew canon:

— The Law

— The Prophets

— The Writings

— The Hebrew Jewish community traditionally referred to these books as the “Torah” (or “instruction” in holiness)

Theme and General Contents

— D.J. A. Clines (1979) has convincingly argued that the Pentateuch has two basic divisions

— Gen 1-11

— Gen 12 - Deut 34.

— In view of the fall of humankind and the broken fellow ship between God and humanity, the first division poses the question:

— How can that relationship be repaired or restored

— The Second division provides the answer

— Or at least a partial answer

— The solution is a covenant between God and Abraham (Gen 12:1-3)

— What humankind was unable to do in all its pride and self-sufficiency (epitomized in the Tower o Babel), God initiated in his covenant promise

The Literature of the Pentateuch

— Most of the Pentateuch is prose narrative

— The text is simple but direct and forceful

— It is a blend of historical reporting and theological interpretation

— Best example is the providential understanding of Joseph’s trials as benefiting all of Jacob’s family (Gen 50:15-21)

Ancient Poetry

— The Pentateuch contains some of the earliest examples of Hebrew poetry in all the Old Testament

— Dates range from the thirteenth to the eleventh centuries BC

Prophetic Revelation

— Prophetic literature in the Old Testament includes

— Foretelling (or divine revelation)

— Exposition (or interpretation) of Yahweh’s covenant-orientated revelation to Israel

— The Pentateuch contains examples of both

— Foretelling

— For example, there is Yahweh’s revelation to Abram regarding the oppression and slavery of his descendants (Gen 15:12-16)

— Moses’s prediction about a prophet that will arise in Israel (Deut 18:17-20)

Exposition

— The clearest example of prophetic-like commentary of Yahweh’s divine revelation are Moses’s understanding of Israel’s earlier covenant history and God’s providential guidance and preservation of his people (the so-called historical prologue of Deut 1-4)

— And Moses’ pointed exposition of the stipulations by which Yahweh would enforce covenant keeping in Israel by means of blessings and curses (Deut 4:1-10; 29:9)

Law

— The idea of law was not unique to the Hebrews in the ancient Near East

— Collections were published in Mesopotamia as early as 2000 BC, some five centuries (or more) before Moses

— The better known of these legal documents are the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Nammu (Ur III Dynasty, 2064-2046(, or perhaps his son Shulgi, 2046-1999)

— And the Old Babylonian laws of Eshnunna (nineteenth century BC)

— And Hammurabi (king of Babylon, 1792-1750)

— More than 600 laws are contained in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy

— The purpose was to regulate the moral, religious and civil life of Israel in accordance with the holiness necessary for maintaining the covenant relationship with Yahweh

— The Old Testament includes

— Commandments

— Statues

— Ordinances

The Pentateuch as History

— Roughly speaking, the Pentateuchal narratives from the call of Moses (Gen 12) to the death of Moses (Deut 34) may be assigned to the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze ages of ancient Near Eastern history

— This means that

— The patriarchal period extends from 2000 to 1600 BC

— Moses and the Exodus is 1500 to 1200 BC

— The names of the pharaohs of the Hebrew oppression and exodus are not mentioned in the biblical text

— As a result of this ambiguity two distinct positions have emerged on the dating of these events

— One group of scholars place the the events in a fixed chronological framework

— For example, Abram’s birth is 2166 BC; he began his sojourn in Canaan in 2019, he offered the Mount Moriah sacrifice in 2056 and died in 1991

— Others place the Hebrew patriarchs on a relative continuum

— They are assigned broadly to the four centuries between 2000 and 1600 BC

— A relative time line is preferable but it is also not without problems

— These dating problems involve two schools of thought on understanding the text

— One group of scholars are committed to a literal reading of the Old Testament

— This is the traditional or confessional reading of the bible

— This group accepts the bible as inspired and God’s Word

— The second group of scholars or thinkers, often called reconstructionists

— They approach the Old Testament (or Hebrew Bible) with skepticism

— Rather than accepting the biblical narratives at face value as literal history or divine revelation, they apply historical-critical methodologies to study the text.

— These methodologies involve analyzing the Bible in its historical and cultural context, comparing it with other ancient texts, and examining how it might have been edited or redacted over time.

— They reject a reading of the text at face value in order to establish a “real” Old Testament history through the application of historical-critical methodologies of the the biblical text

Interpretation of the Pentateuch

— Ever since the second century the church has been confronted with the problem of the rightful place of the Old Testament in the Christian Bible

— Most notably was Marcion of Sinope (85 -100 AD)

— Born in modern day Turkey, he rejected the Old Testament completely

— He believed that the God described in it was fundamentally different from the God revealed by Jesus Christ in the New Testament

— He represented one extreme, namely, utter rejection of the Old Testament as its “inferior God.”

— Today the other extreme may be found among those groups who recognize the absolute authoritative nature of the Old Testament writings for the life and doctrine of the church

— The problem of reconciling “law” and “grace” gave rise to multiple methods of interpretation of the Old Testament during the Middle Ages

— In the Middle Ages four basic methods were used interpret the Old Testament

(1) The literal or plain, taking the text at face value

(2) The allegorical or hidden meaning, uncovering “buried” meanings for personal faith

(3) The moral didactic, directing Christian behavior

(4) The mystical or spiritual (anagogical) focusing on the consummation of faith and the ultimate hope of the Christian

— Since the Reformation, Protestant church has attempted to resolve the tension between the “law” and “grace” by one of two basic approaches

— The first approach, known as Dispensationalism, heightens the discontinuity of the two covenants by means of a “dispensational” interpretation that identifies seven self-contained eras

— This approach draws sharp distinctions between Israel and the church

— It constitutes a messianic suspension of the Old Testament law

— The Scofield Reference Bible is closely aligned with dispensational theology (1909)

— Dispensational theology as we know it today did not develop until the 19th century

— It was largely the work of John Nelson Darby, the leader of the Plymouth Brethren movement

— The second approach, covenant theology, emphasizes the continuity of the “covenant of works” and the “covenant of grace”

— The Reformation Study Bible (formerly the Geneva Study Bible) aligns with covenant theology

— Covenant theology emphasizes continuity of God’s redemptive plan throughout Scripture

— Reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others, were proponents of covenant theology

— Covenant Theology focuses on the continuity between the Old and New Testaments, with the New Testament fulfilling the promises made in the Old Testament

John Goldingay offers a helpful summary of contemporary views regarding continuity and discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. Ironically, his categories largely parallel those of biblical interpretation during the Middle Ages. The first contemporary view, the Old Testament as a “way of life,” equates with the moral interpretive method of the Middle Ages, which views the Old Testament as a handbook on personal ethics. The second, the Old Testament as a “witness to Christ,” emphasizes allegorical and typological interpretation much like the “hidden meaning” approach. The third, the Old Testament as “salvation history,” calls attention to the God who acts redemptively in human history. Like the anagogical approach, this method points to the Christ event as the fundamental link between the Old and New Testaments. Goldingay’s final category, the Old Testament as “Scripture,” highlights the development of canon as the authoritative voice for belief and practice in the religious community.

According to John Bright, only the approach that takes seriously the Old Testament as Scripture correctly understands the text and elevates the old covenant to its rightful place in the Christian Bible. There is a sense in which the other three approaches (The Old Testament as a way of life, as a witness to Christ, and as salvation history) reduce the old covenant to a second rank in comparison with the New Testament. For Bright, this reading of the Old Testament with the “New Testament glasses” robs the former of its authority for the Christian church. Since the Old Testament is intrinsically authoritative by virtue of its canonical status in the Christian community, it too is binding on the church in what it teaches explicitly and affirms implicitly. This canonical status also means that the Old Testament is authoritative in its entirety and cannot be appealed to selectively. Only this biblical theological approach preserves the divine authority of the entire Old Testament for the community of the New Testament church. This makes Paul’s statement intelligible: “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us” (Rom 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11).

New Testament Understanding of the Old Testament Law

— Jesus' View on the Law:

— Jesus acknowledged the law's focus on legalism:

— It required obedience to detailed Old Testament prescriptions and stipulations given by God to Israel (e.g., tithing, Matthew 23:23)

— The true nature of the law, according to Jesus, went beyond external behaviors

— It emphasized justice, mercy, and faithfulness (Matthew 23:23)

— Paul affirmed the law as Holy, spiritual, righteous, and good (Romans 7:12-14)

— One function of the law:

— To expose sin as rebellion and disobedience against God

— To leave humanity without excuse before a holy God

— The law highlighted humanity's need for divine redemption

Purpose of the Law:

— It was a "tutor" for Israel and the world, preparing them for Jesus Christ (Galatians 3:24).

— Its sacrificial and ethical demands foreshadowed: The New Testament gospel of justification by faith in Jesus Christ

Continuity Between the Old Testament and New Testament:

— New Testament Understanding of Old Testament Law:

— Three Interpretive Approaches:

Typological: Old Testament persons, events, and things foreshadow corresponding New Testament entities (e.g., Levitical law and the priesthood of Jesus, Hebrews 7-9)

Allegorical: Texts understood symbolically (e.g., Paul’s allegorical use of Deuteronomy 25:4 in defending apostolic privileges, 1 Corinthians 9:8-11)

Didactic: Instructional value for modern readers (e.g., Paul highlights the Old Testament's lessons for believers and the church, Romans 15:4, 1 Corinthians 10:11)

Discontinuity Between the Old Testament and New Testament:

— Differences in Law, Faith, and God’s Understanding:

— Jesus canceled ceremonial food laws (e.g., Mark 7:14-23, Acts 10:9-23)

— Levitical laws for priests and animal sacrifices are superseded by Jesus

— Jesus is the greater high priest and the once-for-all sacrifice for sin (Hebrews 7:15-28, 9:11-14)

Ongoing Theological Principles:

— Abiding Authority of the Old Testament:

— Despite functional abrogation of civil and ceremonial laws, theological principles remain intact (2 Timothy 3:16)

— Examples of New Testament applications:

— Jesus as the Passover lamb, ending animal sacrifices (1 Corinthians 5:7)

— Believers called to be living sacrifices (Romans 12:1-2)

— Believers to remain holy, as they form a royal priesthood in Christ (1 Peter 1:16, 2:9)