The City of Corinth

Historical Corinth

Corinth, an ancient and a modern city of the Peloponnese, in south-central Greece. Peloponnese is a massive peninsula (21,439 square km) and mountainous body of land jutting southward into the Mediterranean that since antiquity has been a major region of Greece, joined to the rest of mainland Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth. This isthmus is bordered by the Gulf of Corinth to the north and the Saronic Gulf to the south, and is an incredibly important land bridge in ancient maritime shipping to all parts of the kingdom.. According to myth, the isthmus is the possession of Poseidon and the Temple of Poseidon is located quite close to modern Corinth.

At one time, Corinth was the second most powerful city in ancient Greece. From the early 6th century BCE, Corinth administered the Panhellenic games at nearby Isthmia, held every two years in the spring. These games were established in honour of Poseidon and were particularly famous for their horse and chariot races. Ancient Corinth’s culture was not short of entertainment. Corinth was the host of the biannual Isthmian Games, one of four important Pan Hellenic festivals and second in status to the Olympian Festival. The Isthmian Games were held from the 6th Century BC to the 4th Century AD. The Olympian (c 776 BC) and Nemean festivals were dedicated to Zeus. The Pythian festival at Delphi, the seat of the most celebrated oracle in the ancient world, was dedicated to Apollo, and the Isthmian festival which was held in the Sanctuary of Poseidon near Ancient Corinth was dedicated to Poseidon.

Concerned with local rival Argos, from c. 550 BCE Corinth became an ally of Sparta. Together, an expedition was launched against Polycrates of Samos in c. 525 BCE but was ultimately unsuccessful. During Cleomenes' reign though, the city became wary of the growing power of Sparta and opposed Spartan intervention in Athens. Corinth also fought in the Persian Wars against the invading forces of Xerxes which threatened the autonomy of all of Greece

In the Classical period of the 5th century BCE, when Athens and Sparta were striving for dominance over Greece, Corinth had been reduced to a secondary position. Its name though revived in the late 4th century BCE, when Philip II of Macedon and later his son and successor Alexander (the Great) made it the center of a panhellenic (all-Greek) alliance against the Persians.

Corinth’s independence finally ended in 338 BCE when Philip of Macedon garrisoned the Acrocorinthus and made the city the centre of the League of Corinth. The city remained the puppet of Macedonia and subsequently of the Achaean League until the latter involved it in a fatal conflict with Rome, and in 146 BCE Corinth was destroyed by the Roman general Lucius Mummius.

During antiquity and the Middle Ages, most ships travelling from Europe to Asia or vice versa, sailed to the Isthmus of Corinth. This way they were able to avoid the detour around the Peloponnese and sailing through the open Ionian and Aegean seas, with all the dangers this entailed. On arrival at the isthmus, the ships were completely unloaded, then pulled across the isthmus by the Corinthians using countless ropes and tree trunks on a ship's trackway called "Diolkos". Once on the other side, the ships were loaded once more and could continue their voyage. This tedious procedure took several days and laid the foundation for the former wealth of Corinth as a trading power

In 44 BCE Julius Caesar reestablished Corinth as a Roman colony. The new Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea. 

The idea for a canal originated with Periander, the second tyrant of the Cypselid and ruler of Corinth, in the 6thcentury BC. However, seemingly without any attempted construction, the project was abandoned. In 40 A.D., the Roman emperor Caligula sent engineers to the isthmus to take necessary, concrete measurements for a canal. The engineers returned with devastating results: they feared that the sea level of the Ionian Sea (Gulf of Corinth) was higher than that of the Aegean Sea (Saronic Gulf) and that creating a gap through the Isthmus of Corinth could cause the flooding of Aegina Island and possibly also of the city of Athens.

Though, as we know today, this was a mistaken assumption, and did not deter the Roman emperor Nero from beginning a larger-scale construction project. It is said that in 67 A.D. the emperor himself broke ground with a golden spade, before leaving the remaining work to 6,000 slaves. 

The remains of the ancient city lie about 50 miles (80 km) west of Athens, at the eastern end of the Gulf of Corinth, on a terrace some 300 feet (90 metres) above sea level. The ancient city grew up at the base of the citadel of the Acrocorinthus—a Gibraltar-like eminence rising 1,886 feet (575 metres) above sea level. The Acrocorinthus lies about 1.5 miles (2.5 km) south of the Isthmus of Corinth, which connects the Peloponnese with central Greece and which also separates the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs from each other. The citadel of the Acrocorinthus rises precipitously above the old city and commands the land route into the Peloponnese, a circumstance that gave Corinth great strategic and commercial importance in ancient times.

Greek religion in Ancient Corinth also included the worship of Aphrodite, Venus to the Romans, the Goddess of love, beauty, pleasure, passion and procreation. Aphrodite was worshipped in her magnificent sanctuary on the top of the Acrocorinth. The sanctuary included images of an armed Aphrodite, Helius, and Eros equipped with bow. The worship of Aphrodite promoted wantonness and decadence which guaranteed that a steady stream of adherents would make the effort to clamber up the Acrocorinth to participate. According to Strabo, a first century Greek geographer, philosopher and historian, 1,000 courtesans were available to attract visitors, which also ensured the riches of the sanctuary. In this respect, public prostitution was integrated within Corinthian religion and culture to the extent that it was not uncommon to hear public prayers that appealed to the gods for more prostitutes.

Proconsuls:The Senate appointed proconsuls to govern these provinces, typically former consuls or praetors whose terms were extended beyond their initial year in office. 

Military Authority:Proconsuls held significant military authority within their provinces, commanding legions and maintaining order through force if necessary. 

Civil Administration:Beyond military duties, proconsuls also served as the supreme judges within their provinces, administering justice and overseeing the collection of taxes. 

Tax Collection:Proconsuls played a crucial role in ensuring that taxes were collected from the provinces and sent to Rome, which was essential for funding the empire's military and infrastructure. 

Maintaining Order:Proconsuls were responsible for maintaining peace and stability within their provinces, suppressing rebellions and addressing any threats to Roman authority. 

Gallio (Acts 18:12)

Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus or Gallio (Greek: Γαλλιων, Galliōn; c. 5 BC – c. AD 65) was a Roman senator and brother of the writer Seneca. Side note about Seneca was born in Colonia Patricia Corduba in Hispania, and was trained in rhetoric and philosophy in Rome. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew was the poet Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica under emperor Claudius,[2] but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to Nero. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was executed by forced suicide for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, of which he was probably innocent.[3] His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings.

A proconsul is a government official similar to a governor or mayor. This piece of information is important because of a letter sent by the Roman Emperor during this time. In the city of Delphi, archaeologists found four different fragments of a letter sent by Emperor Claudius. When they pieced them together, the Emperor said in the letter that it was to “Lucius Junius Gallio, my friend, and the proconsul of Achaia.”

As a writer, Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays, which are all tragedies. His prose works include 12 essays and 124 lettersdealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism

The Delphi Inscription, or Gallio Inscription (Fouilles de Delphes III 4:286; SIG, II, 801d), is the name given to the collection of nine fragments of a letter written by the Roman emperor Claudius in 52 CE which was discovered early in the 20th century at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece.

The mention of Gallio as proconsul of Achaia offers the possibility of establishing a fixed point in the chronology of Paul's life. From that point, we can reckon forward and backward to establish the best times for all of the events mentioned.

Achaia was the area of ancient Greece south of Macedonia. The province was made answerable to the Senate by Claudius in A.D. 44.

The term of office for a Proconsul was 1 year (2 years in rare cases).

The beginning of the term of office was May or June. This is indicated by the fact that in A.D. 42, Claudius ordered all proconsuls to leave Rome for their provinces by April 1. In A.D. 43, he amended his law so that proconsuls only had to leave by the middle of April. Thus, allowing for travel time, the term of office would have started in early summer and lasted from summer to summer.

Some biographical information on Gallio is available. His full name was L. Junius Gallio Annaeanus. He was a brother of Seneca, the Roman Philosopher. Gallio is recorded in history by both Tacitus and Dio Cassius.

The Delphi Inscription is a copy of a letter from the emperor Claudius to the city of Delphi (located across the bay from Corinth). In it, he refers to Gallio as proconsul, and the letter is dated.

The date given is the 26th "imperial acclamation"; of Claudius. An imperial acclamation was an honorary appellation by which the Roman soldiers saluted their general after a military victory. Later, the Senate took over the giving of the imperial acclamation, and the nature of the appellation changed to one signifying supreme power. Emperors during this period were receiving these honors on a regular basis, often more than once in a year. The 26th and 27th imperial acclamation of Claudius both occurred in AD 52.

This date is confirmed by considering another honor known as the “tribunician power.” Roman magistrates known as tribunes were respected, and the senate periodically conferred a similar title upon the emperor. The honor came to be granted annually, in addition to the initial granting upon the ascension of the new emperor to the throne. This honor is also mentioned in the Delphi inscription. Although the exact number of times this honor had been conveyed is lost from the tablet, a corresponding Carian inscription links Claudius’ 12th tribunician power (going from Jan. 25, AD 52 to Jan. 25, AD 53) with his 26th imperial acclamation. Therefore, the 26th imperial acclamation must fall within this period.

On the Aqua Claudia at Rome, (an aqueduct dedicated on Aug. 1, AD 52), is an inscription which states that Claudius had received the tribunician power the l2th time, and had received the imperial acclamation the 27th time. Thus, Claudius must have received his 26th imperial acclamation prior to the building of the Aqueduct (i.e. within the time period from AD Jan. 25 to August 1, A.D. 52). Therefore, the Delphi inscription can be dated as having been written during the first half (Jan-July) of AD 52.

Narrowing the date: When was Paul brought before Gallio?

Acts 18:11-12 states that Paul stayed a year and six months in Corinth. He was then brought before Gallio by the Jews, “while Gallio was proconsul of Achaia.” It is likely that Gallio was newly arrived in Achaia at the time of this trial. He would thus provide a ripe opportunity for the Jews to try to get rid of Paul. It is probable, therefore, that Paul was brought before Gallio in the summer of AD 51.