The plurality of God in the Old Testament
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“The Christian doctrine of God is important, yet difficult to comprehend and explain. This is not surprising because the finite human mind cannot fully comprehend the infinite God. ”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/dUX4ecQ
“The Old Testament expresses and insists particularly on the oneness of God. Yet, the oneness of God seems to be presented as a plurality-in-oneness—a plurality within one God.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/bz7Q3Ah
“Several statements in the Old Testament require the Israelites to adhere strictly to monotheism because there is only one true God. For example:
35 To you it was shown, that you might know that the Lord Himself is God; there is none other besides Him.
39 Therefore know this day, and consider it in your heart, that the Lord Himself is God in heaven above and on the earth beneath; there is no other.
8 I am the Lord, that is My name; And My glory I will not give to another, Nor My praise to carved images.
11 I, even I, am the Lord, And besides Me there is no savior.
5 I am the Lord, and there is no other; There is no God besides Me. I will gird you, though you have not known Me,
9 Remember the former things of old, For I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like Me,
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute
https://a.co/as07ie9
4 “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one!
“In this verse, Moses is teaching that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is “one.” Unlike the surrounding cultures who may believe in and worship many gods, Israel has only one God, Yahweh! But what does “one” (Heb. ’ekhad) mean? Does it mean God is one person (i.e., solitariness) or God is one (i.e., a unity of more than one person)?”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/frfilVn
“The word ’ekhad mostly means “one” in contrast to two or three. Yet, it can also convey the notion of a plurality-in-oneness.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/iNYbFgd
3 So Moses came and told the people all the words of the Lord and all the judgments. And all the people answered with one voice and said, “All the words which the Lord has said we will do.”
24 Therefore a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and they shall become one flesh.
13 Fear the Lord your God, serve him only and take your oaths in his name.
14 Do not follow other gods, the gods of the peoples around you;
15 for the Lord your God, who is among you, is a jealous God and his anger will burn against you, and he will destroy you from the face of the land.
Yahweh, Elohim, Adonai
Yahweh, Elohim, Adonai
The personal name of the God of Israel is Yahweh (Exod 6:2–8; Isa 42:8). This name is always singular in form and takes singular verbs and singular personal pronouns (e.g., Gen 2:4–9, 15–22). By implication, Yahweh is one God (Deut 6:4).
Unlike the name Yahweh, the names Elohim, “God” and Adonai, “Lord” are plural in form (e.g., Deut 10:17; Pss 35:23; 38:15).
Elohim can refer to the God of Israel (Gen 1) or to the gods of the nations (e.g., Josh 24:2, 14, 23). When it refers to the God of Israel, Elohim takes singular verbs and pronouns (Gen 1:1, 3–5). But when the reference is to human-made gods or demons, plural verbs and pronouns are usually used (e.g., Exod 32:1, 8; 1 Kgs 20:10; Isa 37:19).
Similarly, Adonai is plural in form (literally “my lords”; e.g., Gen 19:2, 18) but it is treated as singular when it refers to the God of Israel (Gen 15:2).
“Despite the use of these plural name forms, corresponding singular forms are attested in the Old Testament: El, “God”; Eloah, “God”; and Adon, “Lord” are each used with reference to the God of Israel.”
For El see, e.g., Genesis 31:13; 35:1, 3; Deuteronomy 7:9; 10:17; Joshua 3:10; Nehemiah 9:31; Isaiah 5:16; 42:5.
For Eloah see, e.g., Deuteronomy 32:15, 17; Nehemiah 9:17; Job 3:4; 12:6; Psalm 18:31; 50:22; Isaiah 44:8; Habakkuk 3:3. Eloah can refer to “god(s)” (e.g., 2 Chr 32:15; Dan 11:37–38).
It appears that while El and Elohim seem to be closely related, Elohim may not necessarily be the plural of El, since the latter has its own plural form: Elim, “gods” (e.g., Exod 15:11; Ps 29:1; 89:7; Dan 11:36).
For Adon, see, e.g., Exodus 23:17; 34:23; Joshua 3:11, 13. Each of these terms is also used with reference to “god” or “gods.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/goOYJ9m
“A common interpretation is that these plural forms are plurals of majesty or royal plurals. But the “plural of majesty” interpretation does not seem to be supported by biblical evidence. Not only does the Old Testament not attest to a plural of majesty,27 it is difficult to explain why only the divine names are in plural while the accompanying verbs and pronouns are almost always in singular, even in passages reporting solemn, direct divine speeches.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/8FFtXYw
The royal “we”, also known as the majestic plural, began to be used in medieval Europe during the early Middle Ages. Its origins are often traced back to the reign of Henry II of England in the 12th century. Monarchs adopted this plural form to emphasize that they spoke not only as individuals but as embodiments of their kingdoms, representing both their personal authority and their role as leaders of their people.
Arguing against the view that Elohim is a plural of majesty, G. A. F. Knight has noted that such understanding reads a modern concept into the ancient Hebrew text, since the kings of Israel/Judah are all addressed in singular.
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/gehNhAl
Juxtaposition of Singular-Plural References to God
Juxtaposition of Singular-Plural References to God
“Genesis 1: 26–27 provides an interesting platform for understanding a plurality-in-oneness. God creates ’adam, “human,” as male and female (Gen 1: 26, 5: 2). The man and the woman are considered one—’ adam, “human.” In Genesis 1: 27 the use of a singular pronominal suffix “him” underscores the oneness of ’adam. Yet the use of the plural verb, “let them rule,” in verse 26 means that the oneness of ’adam, “human,” is a multi-personal unity—’ adam refers to more than one person. Genesis 2: 23–24 further demonstrates that two Persons who are equal in nature and share the same substance can be “one flesh” (’ ekhad basar). The singularity-plurality feature of ’adam in Genesis 1 and 2 could reflect some aspect of Elohim who is presented both as singular and plural in Genesis 1: 26–27.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/iTV2FE3
Then God said, [singular] “Let Us make [plural] man in Our image [plural], according to Our likeness [plural].” So God created [singular] man in His own image [singular] in the image of God He created [singular] him; male and female He created [singular] them. (Gen 1:26–27)
When Moses referes to god he does it in a singular way, but we God speaks, he speaks in a plural voice.
“From these verses, we may conclude that just as “human” is a plurality-in-oneness as revealed through the use of singular and plural verbs and pronouns, so may the similar use of singular-plural verbs and pronouns depict a plurality-in-oneness within God.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/e267aEw
Use of Plural Verbs and Pronouns for God
Use of Plural Verbs and Pronouns for God
“Several passages are known for their use of plural verbs and pronouns with reference to Elohim/ Yahweh. These include (1) Genesis 1: 26–27, (2) Genesis 3: 22, (3) Genesis 11: 7, and (4) Isaiah 6: 8.34 In Genesis 1: 26, God’s intention to create human beings is expressed, unlike the other acts of creation in the chapter, by the first common plural verb “let us make.” 35 This plural verb is followed by two nouns with plural pronominal suffixes: betsalmenu, “in our image” and kidmutenu, “according to our likeness.””
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/a8Tad3b
“Hasel’s suggestion that “let us” is a plural of fullness bears affinity with the view that the name Elohim (and Adonai) is an internal plural (Keil and Delitzsch) or a quantitative diversity in unity (Knight). The plural verb is probably used to emphasize the point that the decision to create human beings was taken by a plurality of Persons who constitute God. 43 The idea of plurality in Elohim is further indicated through the use of plural pronouns, “our image” and “our likeness,” which indicate that the human beings Elohim created (v. 27) share some characteristics with their Creator that other creatures in Genesis 1 do not share, be they spiritual, physical, or both.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/hpa8erS
22 And the Lord God said, “The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever.”
6 The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.”
“Again, while as in 1: 26 plural forms are used in the direct speeches of the Lord, the execution of the actions intended in the speeches are reported through singular verb forms: (1) After God said, “let us [pl.] make man” (Gen 1: 26), God “created [sg.] man” (v. 27); (2) after God said, “man has become like one of us [pl.]” (3: 22), God “sent [sg.]” the man and his wife out of the garden; and (3) after God said, “let us [pl.] go down and there confuse their language” (11: 7), the Lord “scattered [sg.]” the people abroad. It is worth observing that even though the human writer keeps the divine speeches in plural forms, his reports of the divine actions betray his understanding that Yahweh/ God is one, hence the use of singular expressions.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/0bpImX5
8 Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send? And who will go for us?” And I said, “Here am I. Send me!”
13 Who can fathom the Spirit of the Lord, or instruct the Lord as his counselor?
14 Whom did the Lord consult to enlighten him, and who taught him the right way? Who was it that taught him knowledge, or showed him the path of understanding?
“In chapter 6 there is an interesting use of the divine names Adonai and Yahweh: (1) Isaiah sees Adonai seated (v. 1), the seraphim praise Him as Yahweh of hosts (v. 3), and Isaiah declares his unworthiness upon seeing Yahweh (v. 5). (2) Adonai speaks directly with Isaiah (vv. 8, 11), but in His speech He mentions that Yahweh (instead of “I” or “We”) will certainly remove His people (v. 12). While the reason for the switch from Adonai to Yahweh and back is unclear, it is possible to think of a plurality of Persons in Adonai/ Yahweh. Within this context the use of the plural pronoun “us” in verse 8, “while not proving the Trinity, suggests that there is a plurality of beings in the speaker.””
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/7EqcWSA
God and the Spirit of God in Genesis 1:2
God and the Spirit of God in Genesis 1:2
“A common interpretation of the phrase “Spirit of God” (ruakh Elohim) in Genesis 1: 2 is that it refers to the Holy Spirit, which must be seen as taking an active role in creation. 49 Another option is to take ruakh Elohim to mean “wind of God”—meaning either a wind in which is the divine presence or a “mighty” wind. 50 The phrase ruakh Elohim elsewhere has the meaning of divine spirit (e.g., Gen 41: 38 NAS), Spirit of God (Exod 31: 3; 35: 31; Num 24: 2; 1 Sam 10: 10; 11: 6; 19: 20, 23; 2 Chr 15: 1; 24: 20; Ezek 11: 24), or evil spirit from God (e.g., 1 Sam 16: 15–16, 23; 18: 10). By similar usage, we may conclude that ruakh Elohim, in the context of Genesis 1: 2, refers to the Holy Spirit. If Moses in Genesis 1: 2 intended only to refer to a “wind” blowing over the earth, he would not need to add Elohim. Nor would he describe the blowing of a wind by “hovering” (Heb. rakhap).
The word rakhap occurs again in Deuteronomy 32:11–12. There, God is said to protect His people just as an eagle “hovers” (rakhap) over its young. It appears fromDeuteronomy 32 that the activity conveyed through the word rakhap is that of an individual, not an impersonal element.
The view that ruakh refers to the Holy Spirit is the interpretation favored by most Evangelical and Adventist scholars. Thus understood, the mention of Elohim and ruakh Elohim in Genesis 1 provides evidence for the idea of a plurality within God.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/7M3uAv6
Yahweh, God, and the Angel of Yahweh
Yahweh, God, and the Angel of Yahweh
“The Angel Is Yahweh/ Elohim In Genesis 16, the Angel appears to Hagar and gives her divine promises (vv. 7–12). These promises are made by the Angel Himself, as if He were Yahweh. Not only does the name Yahweh in verse 11 seem to refer to the Angel, 54 but the text states that the one who speaks with Hagar is Yahweh (v. 12). Having understood the Angel to be Yahweh, Hagar subsequently calls Him God (v. 13). The identity of the Angel with Yahweh/ God is also clearly found in Genesis 31 and 32. While in Genesis 28 it is Yahweh/ God who appears to Jacob, in 31: 11 the Angel identifies Himself as the “God of Bethel” (v. 13). The Man who subsequently wrestles with Jacob (32: 24) is identified as God both by the Man Himself (v. 28) and by Jacob (v. 30). 55 Hosea identifies this Man as the Angel, who is God (Hos 12: 4–5). Exodus 3: 2–4 identifies the Angel with Yahweh/ God: And the Angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire from the midst of a bush. So he looked, and behold, the bush was burning with fire, but the bush was not consumed. Then Moses said, “I will now turn aside and see this great sight, why the bush does not burn.” So when the Lord saw that he turned aside to look, God called to him from the midst of the bush and said, “Moses, Moses!” And he said, “Here I am.” In these verses, the Angel is also called Yahweh and God (v. 4). In the verses that follow, the Angel requires Moses to remove his sandals in reverence to God (v. 5), and subsequently refers to Himself several times as Yahweh and as God (vv. 7–18). The Angel also calls Himself “I Am” (v. 14). Thus, in this passage the divinity of the Angel is clearly marked; He is fully God as He is identified with Yahweh/ God. Again, in His interactions with Gideon in Judges 6: 11–25, the Angel is referred to as Yahweh (vv. 14, 16, 23–25). When Gideon perceives that it is the Angel who appears to him, he cries out, “Alas, O Lord God! For I have seen the Angel of the Lord face to face” (v. 22). Read against such passages as Genesis 32: 30 and Exodus 33: 11, it appears that Gideon, as did the Israelites in general, recognized this Angel as a divine Person. The same is true of the Angel who appeared to Manoah’s wife (Judg 13). In verse 3, the Angel appears to Manoah’s wife and promises the birth of a son who would be a Nazirite to “God” (v. 5). The Angel is also called “Man of God” (vv. 6, 10–11) whose appearance is likened to “the Angel of God” (v. 6). Manoah subsequently praises Yahweh (also called Adon, “Lord”), and “God” listens to his prayer which results in a second appearance of the Angel to the woman (v. 9). In verses 15–22 the Angel (1) refuses to eat but requires that burnt offering be made to Yahweh (v. 16); (2) refuses to mention His name, since it is too wonderful (vv. 17–18); (3) accepts the offering made to Yahweh (v. 19); and (4) is subsequently called “God” by Manoah and wife (v. 22). The Angel is clearly a divine Person as He claims divinity. As such, He is referred to as Yahweh (vv. 16, 19, 23) and God (v. 22). Yet there are several references to “Yahweh” in the chapter that are not simply shortened forms of “Angel of Yahweh” (vv. 1, 16, 19, 23–25). This, together with the subtle distinction made in verse 9 between God and the Angel, would suggest that while the Angel is Yahweh/ God, He is sometimes presented as a distinct divine Person. This leads us to the second assertion regarding the Angel.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/iicWyBp
“The Angel Is God Yet Distinct From Yahweh/ God Genesis 22 opens with the command of “God” (Elohim) to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac (vv. 1–2). Subsequently, it is the Angel who calls out of heaven to stop the patriarch from sacrificing his son (v. 11), stating, “Now I know that you fear God” (v. 12). Abraham acknowledges that it is Yahweh who provided the lamb in place of Isaac (v. 14), and the Angel seems to report the words of Yahweh in the solemn oath that ensues (vv. 15–18). In Genesis 22, therefore, it appears the Angel is different from Yahweh/ God. Exodus 14 and 23 distinguish between Yahweh and the Angel, yet both are recognized as divine Persons. In chapter 23, Yahweh is said to have sent an angel before Israel to lead them into the promised land: Behold, I am going to send an angel before you to guard you along the way, and to bring you into the place which I have prepared. Be on your guard before him and obey his voice; do not be rebellious toward him, for he will not pardon your transgression, since My name is in him (Exod 23: 20–21; 32: 34). In this passage, the Angel is not specified as the “angel of the Lord.” Yet, since Yahweh’s name is in this Angel and the people are required to obey His voice, we may conclude that the Angel in this passage is identical to the “Angel of the Lord” elsewhere. 56 Exodus 14 shows that the Angel whom Yahweh sent before the Israelites was “the Angel of God” (v. 19), whose presence was symbolized by the pillar of fire and cloud. In verse 24 the Angel is identified as Yahweh who “looked . . . through the pillar of fire and cloud, and . . . troubled the army of the Egyptians” (v. 24). Since the Angel is sent by Yahweh/ God and yet divinity is ascribed to Him, the two must be understood to be distinct divine Persons. The distinction between Yahweh/ God and the Angel comes up again in Numbers 22: 22–38, where references are made to God (v. 22), Yahweh (vv. 28, 31), and the Angel (vv. 22–27, 31–35). God in His anger against Balaam seems to send the Angel to oppose the prophet on his way (v. 22). In the encounter, it is Yahweh who opens the mouth of the donkey (v. 28). Yahweh also opens Balaam’s eyes and enables him to see the Angel (v. 31). The Angel speaks to Balaam as God would: “Your way is perverse before me” (v. 32), and Balaam refers to Him as God (v. 38; cf. v. 35). In Numbers 22, therefore, Yahweh and the Angel are God. In Joshua 5: 13–15, the Commander of the army of the Lord presents Himself as divine, and Joshua worships Him as such. Like Moses before the “burning bush” (Exod 3), Joshua is required to remove his sandals (Josh 5: 15). The connection between Exodus 3 and Joshua 5 allows for the conclusion that the Angel who appears to Moses is probably identical to the Commander who appears to Joshua. This would further confirm that the divine Angel is the one whom Yahweh sends to lead Israel to the land of Canaan (Exod 23: 20–23). Accordingly, the Angel would later reveal to Israel that it was He who had led them out of Egypt in fulfillment of His promise, but that He would no longer drive out the Canaanites from the land because of Israel’s persistent disobedience (Judg 2: 1–4). Following the words of the Angel, the Israelites weep bitterly and then offer sacrifices not to the Angel but to Yahweh (v. 5). Here, as in several other instances, the Israelites seemed to have distinguished between Yahweh and the Angel; both of them, nonetheless, were recognized as divine. Second Samuel 24: 15–16 also makes a distinction between Yahweh and the Angel. The “angel of the Lord,” sometimes simply referred to as “angel” (vv. 16–17), receives a command from Yahweh to relent on destroying Jerusalem. Since Yahweh addresses the Angel, the two must be seen as distinct Persons (cf. 1 Chr 21: 12–16). Similarly, Zechariah 3 distinguishes between the Angel and Yahweh. Although He Himself seems to be referred to as Yahweh in verse 2a, the Angel speaks the words of Yahweh in verses 2b, 6–9. In citing the words of Yahweh the Angel indicates that Yahweh will send His “servant the Branch” through whom to remove the guilt of the land (vv. 8–9). The divinity of the Angel is revealed through His exercise of divine authority to pardon the guilt of Joshua whom Satan accuses (v. 4). Yet even as a divine Person, the Angel is different from Yahweh, 57 so that when in verse 2 we read “And the Lord [Yahweh = Angel of Yahweh] said to Satan, ‘The Lord [Yahweh] rebuke you, Satan! The Lord who has chosen Jerusalem rebuke you!” we are to understand that Yahweh is a divine Person distinct from the Angel, who is also Yahweh. 58 In summary, the deity of the Angel is highlighted in several ways in the Old Testament: (1) He is identified and recognized as God, (2) He is described in terms that befit the deity alone, (3) He calls Himself God, (4) He is worshiped, and (5) He speaks with divine authority. 59 The Angel is fully God as He is identified with Yahweh/ God. But while the Angel is a divine Person, there are instances where a distinction is made between Him and Yahweh/ God. Thus, the Angel is also fully God even when He is presented as a Person distinct from Yahweh/ God. We conclude, therefore, that in the Old Testament God can be more than one divine Person. The identity of the divine Persons with each other is indication that the plurality of Persons within God is a plurality with indissoluble unity.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/8bLDqvY
Other References to Divine Plurality
Other References to Divine Plurality
6 Your throne, O God, is forever and ever; A scepter of righteousness is the scepter of Your kingdom.
7 You love righteousness and hate wickedness; Therefore God, Your God, has anointed You With the oil of gladness more than Your companions.
8 But about the Son he says, “Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever; a scepter of justice will be the scepter of your kingdom.
9 You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness; therefore God, your God, has set you above your companions by anointing you with the oil of joy.”
1 The Lord says to my lord: “Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.”
43 He said to them, “How is it then that David, speaking by the Spirit, calls him ‘Lord’? For he says,
44 “ ‘The Lord said to my Lord: “Sit at my right hand until I put your enemies under your feet.” ’
45 If then David calls him ‘Lord,’ how can he be his son?”
46 No one could say a word in reply, and from that day on no one dared to ask him any more questions.
6 For unto us a Child is born, Unto us a Son is given; And the government will be upon His shoulder. And His name will be called Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.
7 Of the increase of His government and peace There will be no end, Upon the throne of David and over His kingdom, To order it and establish it with judgment and justice From that time forward, even forever. The zeal of the Lord of hosts will perform this.
1 “Behold, I send My messenger, And he will prepare the way before Me. And the Lord, whom you seek, Will suddenly come to His temple, Even the Messenger of the covenant, In whom you delight. Behold, He is coming,” Says the Lord of hosts.
2 “But who can endure the day of His coming? And who can stand when He appears? For He is like a refiner’s fire And like launderers’ soap.
3 He will sit as a refiner and a purifier of silver; He will purify the sons of Levi, And purge them as gold and silver, That they may offer to the Lord An offering in righteousness.
9 “As I looked, “thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool. His throne was flaming with fire, and its wheels were all ablaze.
10 A river of fire was flowing, coming out from before him. Thousands upon thousands attended him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him. The court was seated, and the books were opened.
11 “Then I continued to watch because of the boastful words the horn was speaking. I kept looking until the beast was slain and its body destroyed and thrown into the blazing fire.
12 (The other beasts had been stripped of their authority, but were allowed to live for a period of time.)
13 “In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence.
14 He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed.
Three Persons of the Godhead
Three Persons of the Godhead
“Within the overarching theme of the oneness of God, we find that (1) God speaks in plural terms within Himself; (2) the Angel of Yahweh is called Yahweh/ God, but is at the same time presented as a divine Person distinct from Yahweh/ God; (3) God ordains and commissions God; and (4) the divine Servant of Yahweh—the Messiah—is distinct from Yahweh/ God, yet is Himself the “Mighty God.” Besides the general concept of a plurality in God, some passages in the Old Testament, specifically in the book of Isaiah, seem to suggest that the plurality in God is a three-in-oneness plurality. These passages include Isaiah 42: 1; 48: 16; 61: 1–3; and 63: 8–12, 16.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/33EfiXO
1 “Behold! My Servant whom I uphold, My Elect One in whom My soul delights! I have put My Spirit upon Him; He will bring forth justice to the Gentiles.
16 “Come near to Me, hear this: I have not spoken in secret from the beginning; From the time that it was, I was there. And now the Lord God and His Spirit Have sent Me.”
1 “The Spirit of the Lord God is upon Me, Because the Lord has anointed Me To preach good tidings to the poor; He has sent Me to heal the brokenhearted, To proclaim liberty to the captives, And the opening of the prison to those who are bound;
2 To proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord, And the day of vengeance of our God; To comfort all who mourn,
3 To console those who mourn in Zion, To give them beauty for ashes, The oil of joy for mourning, The garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness; That they may be called trees of righteousness, The planting of the Lord, that He may be glorified.”
8 He said, “Surely they are my people, children who will be true to me”; and so he became their Savior.
9 In all their distress he too was distressed, and the angel of his presence saved them. In his love and mercy he redeemed them; he lifted them up and carried them all the days of old.
10 Yet they rebelled and grieved his Holy Spirit. So he turned and became their enemy and he himself fought against them.
11 Then his people recalled the days of old, the days of Moses and his people— where is he who brought them through the sea, with the shepherd of his flock? Where is he who set his Holy Spirit among them,
12 who sent his glorious arm of power to be at Moses’ right hand, who divided the waters before them, to gain for himself everlasting renown,
16 But you are our Father, though Abraham does not know us or Israel acknowledge us; you, Lord, are our Father, our Redeemer from of old is your name.
“The Hebrew word for “grieved” (‘ atsab) has a range of nuances including “hurt” (1 Chr 4: 10; Eccl 10: 9), “twist” (Ps 56: 5), and “distress” or “grieve” (Gen 6: 6; 34: 7; 45: 5; 1 Sam 20: 3; Ps 78: 40; Isa 54: 6). It is never used for an impersonal subject or object, since only a person can be grieved.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/dpHcrsn
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
“The New Testament revelation of the titles of the three Persons of the Godhead as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is implicit in the Old Testament.
God is called Father (Deut 32: 6; Isa 63: 16; 64: 8; Mal 1: 6; 2: 10), fatherly attributes are ascribed to Him (Deut 1: 31; 8: 5; Prov 3: 12; Isa 1: 2; 30: 1, 9), He is the Father of Israel (Exod 4: 22; Jer 3: 4; Hos 11: 1), and Israel is His firstborn (Exod 4: 22). In a special sense, God is the Father of the Davidic kings (2 Sam 7: 14) and of the Messiah (Ps 2: 2, 7). Although God is called Father in the Old Testament, the “father” appellation is not a technical term that designates the first Person of the Godhead as we find in the New Testament.
The Old Testament also speaks of a God-Son yet to be born (Isa 7: 14; 9: 6) who shall reign on the Davidic throne as the divine Branch (Jer 23: 5–6; 33: 14–18; Zech 3: 8; 6: 12) in everlasting peace and righteousness (Isa 11: 1–16). This God-Son is also pictured as the Servant of Yahweh, whose suffering and death would bring healing to humanity (e.g., Isa 52–53). In the book of Daniel, the God-Son is specifically called “Son of Man” (7: 13) and Messiah (9: 25–27) who shall rule over the kingdom of God (7: 14, 27). In contexts where the Angel of Yahweh is presented as distinct from Yahweh, the Angel seems to refer to the God-Son (e.g., Exod 14: 19; 23: 20–21; Zech 3: 1–9; Mal 3: 1–3). Similarly, in the passages where two divine Persons are presented, one of them is the God-Son (e.g., Pss 45: 6–7; 110: 1). The God-Son is mysteriously begotten by God (Ps 2: 7) and is Himself God (e.g., Ps 45: 6–7; Isa 9: 6). And the references to the birth and the divinity of the Son suggest that He is the God-Man (Isa 7: 14; 9: 6; Dan 7: 13).
The Old Testament also makes references to the Holy Spirit or the Spirit of God. The Spirit is presented as taking an active role in creation (e.g., Gen 1: 2; Job 33: 4; 34: 14–15). The Spirit of God dwells in human beings (e.g., Gen 41: 38; Num 27: 18; 1 Sam 16: 13) and enables individuals to perform certain tasks (Exod 31: 3; 35: 31; Num 11: 25; 24: 2; Dan 4: 8–9; 5: 11). For example, the judges and the prophets executed their duties through the Spirit (Judg 3: 10; 6: 34; 11: 29; 13: 25; 1 Sam 10: 6–10; 2 Chr 15: 1; Mic 3: 8). The Spirit speaks through people (2 Sam 23: 2; 1 Kgs 22: 24). In 2 Samuel 23: 2–3 the “Spirit of the Lord” parallels the “God of Israel” (also Isa 30: 1). Psalm 139: 7–8 attributes the divine characteristic of omnipresence to the Spirit and equates Yahweh’s presence with the Spirit. The Spirit can take actions on His own (2 Kgs 2: 16; Ezek 11: 5, 24; Mic 2: 7). For example, Ezekiel 11 reports the Spirit’s falling upon the prophet and instructing him to speak the words of the Lord (v. 5). The Spirit brings about revival and change of heart (Ezek 11: 19; 18: 31; 36: 26–27; 37: 1–14; cf. Isa 57: 15). People can take counsel with the Lord as well as with the Spirit (Isa 30: 1). The Spirit accompanies the ministry of the God-Son, Servant of Yahweh (Isa 11: 2–4; 42: 1; 61: 1–3). In Joel 2 the outpouring of the Spirit will be characteristic of the last days (vv. 28–29), a prophecy whose partial fulfillment Peter recognizes on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2). Finally, Isaiah 63 presents the Lord, the Angel of His Presence, and the Holy Spirit as distinct personalities (vv. 9–10). In addition to other passages (e.g., Gen 6: 3; 2 Sam 23: 2–3; Isa 48: 16; Ezek 11: 5, 24; Mic 2: 7), Isaiah 63: 10 reveals that the Spirit of God has personal characteristics. 88 As such, the Spirit is said to have been “grieved” by Israel in the wilderness (v. 10; cf. Ps 106: 33). 89 The personal characteristics notwithstanding, the Old Testament does not explicitly imply that the Spirit was understood as one of three divine Persons as is the case in the New Testament.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute
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“Yahweh/ God is the only true God. Not only are singular verbs and pronouns used for God, but many direct statements serve to highlight the oneness of God. But the oneness of God as consistently expressed in the Old Testament does not preclude a plurality of Persons within the one God; it only precludes the recognition and worship of demonic and/ or human-made gods as was current in the surrounding cultures. So we find that in the passages where the oneness of God is asserted, the contrast is consistently between the God of Israel on the one hand and the gods of the Canaanites on the other.”
— Revisiting the Trinity: Biblical, Theological and Historical Reflections (BRI Studies on the Trinity Book 1) by Biblical Research Institute https://a.co/ezWdeJT
