OT - Survey 19 - Archeology and the Old Testament

All content is derived from A Survey of the Old Testament by Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, with additional insights from R.C. Sproul's Dust to Glory. Further sources referenced are listed in the reference section below.

The Purpose of Archaeology

Recovering Material Culture and Reconstructing History

— Archaeology seeks to recover objects from ancient civilizations and reconstruct their histories and lifestyles. — Specialists excavate chosen sites, carefully uncovering successive layers of habitation. — Pottery shards are the most common finds, helping to establish chronologies. — Art, tools, weapons, and architecture reveal cultural, technological, and social aspects of ancient life. — Written records such as graffiti, seals, inscriptions, and archives are especially valuable for interpretation.

Contribution to Biblical Studies

— Near Eastern archaeology overlaps significantly with biblical backgrounds, aiding in understanding historical and cultural contexts. — Although archaeology originated partly from biblical interest, modern scholars recognize it as an independent discipline.

What Archaeology Can Do for the Bible

Illumination of Biblical Times

— Archaeology supplements biblical accounts by constructing historical frameworks, reconstructing political situations, and recovering customs and religious practices.

Authentication and Limitations

— Archaeology sometimes confirms biblical names, places, and events but often cannot definitively authenticate them. — Interpretations of archaeological finds can vary and evolve, complicating their use for apologetics.

Contributions to Linguistic Studies

— Comparative Semitic linguistics, enriched by archaeological discoveries, has deepened understanding of Hebrew and the cultural background of the Old Testament.

What Archaeology Cannot Do for the Bible

Limitations of Archaeological Evidence

— As Edwin Yamauchi outlines, only a fraction of evidence survives, is excavated, and contributes to biblical studies (Yamauchi, The Stones and the Scriptures, 1972). — Many potential findings remain undiscovered or unpublished.

Inability to Confirm Theological Truths

— Archaeology cannot confirm God's sovereign actions, such as causing the walls of Jericho to fall (Joshua 6:20) or establishing covenants (Genesis 15:18). — Archaeological evidence can affirm history but not divine intervention or theological meaning.

What Archaeology Has Done for the Bible

Discovery of Archives

— Archives in cities like Ebla, Mari, and Newsy reveal political, legal, and personal life in the ancient Near East. — Important examples include: — Ebla: Historical insight into third-millennium Syria. — Mari: Political complexity in the eighteenth century BC, and non-Israelite prophecy parallels. — Newsy: Family practices shedding light on patriarchal narratives (e.g., Genesis 16:1–4).

Significant Finds

— Amarna Letters: Diplomatic correspondence detailing Canaanite politics (14th century BC). — Hattusha: Revealed the Hittite empire and treaty structures influencing Deuteronomy. — Ugarit: Mythological texts expanding understanding of Canaanite religion and its contrast with Israelite worship. — Ashurbanipal’s Library: Offered epics like The Epic of Gilgamesh, relating to biblical themes (Genesis 6–9). — Dead Sea Scrolls: Provided manuscripts over a millennium older than previously known texts, confirming textual stability (e.g., Numbers 6:24–26).

Monuments and Inscriptions

— Mesha Stele: Extra-biblical reference to Moabite-Israelite conflicts (Joshua 6:17–19). — Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III: Depicts Jehu’s submission (2 Kings 9–10). — Sennacherib’s Prism: Affirms Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 18–19; 2 Chronicles 32; Isaiah 36–37). — Cyrus Cylinder: Corroborates the biblical account of Judah’s return from exile (Ezra 1:1–4).

Cult Sites and Biblical Places

— Excavations of Israelite cultic sites like Dan and Arad complement biblical references to worship practices.

Insights from Archaeology into People, Places, and Events

Biblical Figures

— Archaeology confirms historical existence of figures like Belshazzar (Daniel 5) and Balaam (Numbers 22–24). — Texts from Tel Dan refer to the “House of David,” affirming David’s historical reality.

Places

— Sites such as Jerusalem, Babylon, Nineveh, Hazor, and Ur have been excavated, providing context for biblical narratives.

Events

— Records like the fall of Samaria (722 BC) and Jerusalem (597 BC) are corroborated by archaeological findings. — The battle of Qarqar (853 BC) is illuminated through inscriptions of Shalmaneser III.

What Archaeology Has Not Yet Done for the Bible

Gaps in Archaeological Evidence

— No Israelite archive has been found; few individual Israelites are referenced in contemporary extra-biblical sources before the ninth century BC. — Important figures like Joseph, Daniel, Esther, and Mordecai still lack direct archaeological evidence.

Problematic Events

— The Exodus and Conquest events (Book of Joshua) remain disputed among archaeologists. — Some archaeological findings have created more confusion than clarity regarding biblical events.

Missing Structures

— Solomonic structures like his palace and temple remain undiscovered, partly due to modern habitation.

Conclusion: Reflections on Archaeology’s Role in Biblical Studies

— Archaeology provides valuable insights that illuminate the Bible’s historical context, affirm many details, and enhance linguistic and cultural understanding. — However, it cannot validate theological truths or the sovereignty of God as portrayed in Scripture. — Proper use of archaeology requires consistent methodology and caution, recognizing both its contributions and limitations.

Brief Summary

Archaeology serves biblical studies by reconstructing historical and cultural backgrounds, confirming some details, and enriching understanding of ancient languages and practices. However, it cannot verify theological claims or divine actions. Though archaeological finds like the Dead Sea Scrolls, Mari archives, and inscriptions such as Sennacherib’s Prism strengthen biblical contexts, significant gaps remain. Careful interpretation and a balanced approach are necessary to use archaeology effectively alongside biblical studies.

References

Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H. (2009), A survey of the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Zondervan Academic.

MacArthur, J. (Ed.). (2021). The MacArthur study Bible (2nd ed.). Thomas Nelson. (New American Standard Bible).

Yamauchi, Edwin M.(1972). The Stones and the Scriptures. Philadelphia: Lippincott.