OT - Survey 28 - Isaiah

All content is derived from A Survey of the Old Testament by Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, with additional insights from R.C. Sproul's Dust to Glory. Further sources referenced are listed in the reference section below.

Key Ideas

The Trustworthiness of the Lord

The incomparability of Israel’s God

Divine sovereignty in judgment and deliverance

Composition and Unity of the Book

Prophetic Identification of Cyrus the Persian

— The book of Isaiah opens with a remarkable predictive identification of Cyrus the Persian by name in Isaiah 45:1, centuries before his rise to power. This singular instance of naming a future world ruler mirrors only one other example in the Old Testament—Josiah in 1 Kings 13:2—and underscores the sovereign prerogative of Yahweh to declare future events. The identification of Cyrus at this climactic point in the poetic structure (Isaiah 44:24–28) functions as a linchpin for arguments in favor of single authorship and genuine supernatural prophecy.

Scholarly Debate on Authorship

— Scholars have long debated whether the linguistic and thematic shifts between chapters 1–39 and chapters 40–66 indicate multiple authors separated by 150 years or more (commonly labeled “Proto-,” “Deutero-,” and “Trito-Isaiah”). Computerized stylistic analyses have lent support to this multi-author thesis. — Advocates for unity counter that New Testament citations (e.g., Matthew 3:3; Luke 3:4; John 12:38–41; Acts 8:28; Romans 10:16) attribute second-section passages directly to Isaiah son of Amoz, treating him as the definitive prophetic source. They further argue that the use of the complete book of Isaiah by Second Kings (compiled mid-exile) implies the entire corpus was available and regarded as authoritative well before the post-exilic period.

Background and Historical Context

Assyrian Ascendancy under Tiglath-pileser III

— During the latter half of the eighth century BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-pileser III emerged as the dominant world power. Chapters 1–39 reflect this geopolitical upheaval. Isaiah addresses two principal invasions. — First, the coalition of Damascus (Aram) and the northern kingdom Israel against Judah (ca. 735–732 BC) prompted Israel’s king Ahaz to seek Assyrian intervention. Tiglath-pileser III answered the call, conquered Aram, annexed parts of Israel, and installed a pro-Assyrian king in Samaria. — Second, the northern kingdom’s final rebellion resulted in the destruction of Samaria in 721 BC—a major event scarcely commented upon in Isaiah but essential to the historical setting of the early oracles.

Hezekiah’s Crisis and Sennacherib’s Campaign

— In 701 BC, Hezekiah’s participation in an anti-Assyrian alliance triggered Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah. As detailed in chapters 36–37, the Assyrian army laid siege to Jerusalem. — Unlike his father Ahaz, who distrusted Yahweh and sought human alliances, Hezekiah trusted the Lord and experienced a miraculous deliverance—an event that both validated Isaiah’s prophecies and provided enduring hope for exilic and post-exilic readers.

Purpose and Message

Covenant Distinctiveness of Israel

— Isaiah’s prophecies highlight Israel’s unique call as Yahweh’s covenant people. The Assyrian policy of forced deportation threatened not merely political autonomy but Israel’s theological identity as a nation chosen and preserved by God.

Trust in Yahweh versus Political Alliances

— Ahaz’s refusal to trust Yahweh—exemplified by his appeal to Assyria—serves as a cautionary tale, resulting in deeper crises (Isaiah 7–12). — In contrast, Hezekiah’s reliance on divine deliverance demonstrates the LORD’s faithfulness to uphold covenant promises, a pattern repeated for exiles and returnees throughout chapters 40–66.

Organization and Structure

Introduction (Chapters 1–5)

— Chapters 1–5 function as an editorially gathered prologue, presenting indictment oracles drawn from diverse periods of Isaiah’s ministry. Though some place these oracles before the vision of chapter 6, others view them as a thematic introduction that culminates in Isaiah’s commissioning.

Vision and Commissioning (Chapter 6)

— Isaiah’s vision of the LORD in the temple (Isaiah 6:1–8) marks the formal commissioning of the prophet, setting the stage for the judgment and hope oracles that follow.

First Historical Scenario: Reign of Ahaz (Chapters 7–12)

— Isaiah confronts Ahaz’s failure to trust Yahweh, alternating stern judgment with glimpses of future restoration and the promise of a Davidic heir (Emmanuel), emphasizing that divine purposes endure beyond human unfaithfulness.

Oracles against the Nations (Chapters 13–23)

— These chapters demonstrate God’s sovereign control over all nations, not merely Israel and Judah. Oracles against Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Egypt, and other nations remind Israel that Yahweh rules over the entire political sphere.

Universal Deliverance (Chapters 24–27)

— This poetic trilogy speaks of worldwide judgment and the ultimate deliverance of God’s people, foreshadowing eschatological expectations of a redeemed creation.

Woe Oracles of Hezekiah’s Era (Chapters 28–33)

— In the final decades of the eighth century, Isaiah’s “woe oracles” decry Judah’s reliance on Egypt (Isaiah 30–31) and contrast the fate of the proud with the protection afforded to those who trust in Zion (Isaiah 33).

Transition to Babylonian Crisis (Chapters 36–39)

— The narrative of Sennacherib’s siege and Hezekiah’s illness (Isaiah 38–39) bridges the Assyrian period with the looming Babylonian exile, introducing a new theological horizon.

Babylonian Exile and New Hope (Chapters 40–55)

— Marked by a shift to poetic and consolatory tone beginning in Isaiah 40:1, this section addresses the exiles in Babylon. It emphasizes God’s unrivaled sovereignty, issues recurring challenges to idols, and proclaims comfort and restoration through the “Servant of the LORD” motifs (Isaiah 42:1–7; 49:1–6; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12).

Post-Exilic Vision (Chapters 56–66)

— The closing section projects further into the future, addressing returnees and their descendants. It calls for righteousness, social justice, and faithfulness, culminating in visions of a renewed Jerusalem, vindication of God’s people, and judgment on the nations.

Major Themes

The Servant Songs

— Four distinct “Servant Songs” portray an individual chosen by God to bring about justice and restoration (Isaiah 42:1–7; 49:1–6; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12). These passages anticipate a figure who suffers on behalf of many and are foundational to later messianic interpretations.

Prophetic Children and Symbolic Names

— Isaiah’s own children bear prophetic names: Shear-jashub (“A remnant shall return,” Isaiah 7:3), Maher-shalal-hash-baz (“Quick to the plunder,” Isaiah 8:1–4), and the sign child “Immanuel” (“God with us,” Isaiah 7:14; 8:8, 10). These names symbolize both immediate geopolitical judgments and enduring divine promises.

Divine Titles: Holy One and Redeemer

— Isaiah uniquely emphasizes Yahweh as the “Holy One of Israel” (e.g., Isaiah 1:4; 5:19; 29:23; 30:11; 41:14; 43:3), underscoring God’s moral purity and Israel’s covenant relationship. — The title “Redeemer” (go’el) appears predominantly in chapters 40–60 (e.g., Isaiah 41:14; 43:14; 44:6, 24; 49:7; 54:5; 59:20; 60:16; 63:16), portraying Yahweh as the deliverer who rescues Israel from bondage.

Eschatology and the Future Kingdom

— Isaiah’s vision of the “latter days” centers on a kingdom ruled by God in Jerusalem (Isaiah 2:2–4; 24:23; 33:22; 43:15; 44:6). Peace, justice, and global pilgrimage to Zion characterize this eschatological hope, with implicit Davidic overtones.

Sovereignty of God over History

— From the naming of Cyrus (Isaiah 45:1) to challenges issued to idols, Isaiah insists that Yahweh alone knows and directs the future. Political upheavals, exiles, and restorations unfold according to divine purpose, inviting Israel to trust in God’s unchanging plan.

Summary

— The book of Isaiah blends historical narrative, poetic judgment, and consolatory prophecy to address Israel’s crises under Assyrian and Babylonian dominance. — Its structure moves from indictments and promises in chapters 1–39 through messages of comfort and restoration in chapters 40–55 to visions of a future kingdom in chapters 56–66. — Major theological emphases include God’s holiness, covenant faithfulness, sovereign control over nations, the role of a suffering servant, and the hope of an eschatological kingdom. — The unity of the book remains debated, yet internal and external evidence—ranging from New Testament citations to Second Kings usage—supports viewing Isaiah son of Amoz as the primary authoritative voice behind its oracles.

Description of the Entire Section

— This section of Hill and Walton’s A Survey of the Old Testament presents a comprehensive overview of Isaiah’s composition, historical settings, structural organization, and theological motifs. It equips readers to understand the book’s flow—from pre-exilic indictments through exilic consolation to post-exilic hope—while highlighting enduring themes of divine sovereignty, covenant identity, and eschatological promise.

References

Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H. (2009), A survey of the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Zondervan Academic.

MacArthur, J. (Ed.). (2021). The MacArthur study Bible (2nd ed.). Thomas Nelson. (New American Standard Bible).