Deep Dive: The Greatest Commandment

Author, Audience, Date, Setting

Author:

Anonymous. The author doesn’t identify himself.

Traditionally Matthew

Possibly a converted scribe (Matt 13:52).

Audience:

Jewish-Christians familiar with scriptures.

Possibly Gentiles included.

Aramaic and Greek speakers

Like Mark, Matthew always explains what Aramaic terms mean except for one (Matt 5:22).

Date: Circa AD 70.

Most scholars place this after AD 70; some before AD 70.

Setting:

Jesus teaching in the temple during his final week.

A series of exegetical debates between Jesus and his opponents.

Jesus has a series of exegetical debates during his last week: do we pay taxes to Caesar, what’s the greatest commandment, the resurrection of the dead, and whose son is the messiah? These questions and responses are all rooted in the Old Testament scriptures.

These are just some background notes. Many of these are debated. The point is just to give some considerations to put us in the ballpark.

The Texts

Mark 12:28-34

Mark 12:28–34 “One of the scribes came near and heard them disputing with one another, and seeing that he answered them well he asked him, “Which commandment is the first of all?” Jesus answered, “The first is, ‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is one; you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength.’ The second is this, ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ There is no other commandment greater than these.” Then the scribe said to him, “You are right, Teacher; you have truly said that ‘he is one, and besides him there is no other’; and ‘to love him with all the heart and with all the understanding and with all the strength’ and ‘to love one’s neighbor as oneself’—this is much more important than all whole burnt offerings and sacrifices.” When Jesus saw that he answered wisely, he said to him, “You are not far from the kingdom of God.” After that no one dared to ask him any question.”

Matt 22:34-40

Matthew 22:34–40 “When the Pharisees heard that he had silenced the Sadducees, they gathered together, and one of them, an expert in the law, asked him a question to test him. “Teacher, which commandment in the law is the greatest?” He said to him, “ ‘You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ On these two commandments hang all the Law and the Prophets.””

Deut 6:4-5

Deuteronomy 6:4–5 ““Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord alone. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might.”

Lev 19:18

Leviticus 19:18 “You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against any of your people, but you shall love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord.”

Variations

Matthew is shorter.

Mark’s account has more dialog between Jesus and the scribe.

The scribe answers Jesus correctly and receives a favorable response

In Mark, Jesus is confronted by a scribe. In Matthew it’s a Pharisee lawyer.

In Matthew, the lawyer explicitly asks the question to “test” Jesus.

Why? Matthew’s gospel is characteristically more critical of the Pharisees (see Matt 25).

Why would this be the case? Possibly Matthew was once one of them (see Acts 15:5).

Mark includes the entire Shema (Deut 6:4-5), Matthew only includes Deut 6:5 (the V’ahavta portion of the Shema).

Mark includes four elements, Matthew only three

Mark 12:30 “you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength.’”

Matthew 22:37 “He said to him, “ ‘You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’”

Matthew vs the LXX of Deut 6:5

Matt 22:37: ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ καρδίᾳ σου καὶ ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ σου καὶ ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ διανοίᾳ σου

Deut 6:5 (LXX/Rahlfs): καὶ ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου

Deut 6:5: (LXX/Swete) καὶ ἀγαπήσεις Κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς διανοίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου

Mark vs the LXX of Deut 6:5

Mark 12:30: καὶ ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς διανοίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ἰσχύος σου

Deut 6:5 (LXX/Rahlfs) καὶ ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου.

Deut 6:5: (LXX/Swete) καὶ ἀγαπήσεις Κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς διανοίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου

2 Kings 23:25 (LXX/Swete): ἐν ὅλῃ καρδίᾳ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐν ὅλῃ ἰσχύι αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐν ὅλῃ ψυχῇ αὐτοῦ

Mark has substituted a different word for “strength” in translating the Hebrew word for ‘might’ found in the Masoretic Text מְאֹד.

Mark has added an additional term emphasizing the mind.

These differences are minor, perhaps significant to some degree, perhaps not.

As Lori Baron points out in her book, The Shema in John’s Gospel, Mark may be adding the additional element on purpose to emphasize the intellect with the scribe.

The element of ‘might’ had some particular interpretations and connotations to be discussed later

In Mark, once combined the two commands are referred to as the greatest “commandment” (singular). In Matthew, they are called “these two commandments.” (more on this later)

We should note here in passing that Luke’s account of the final week does not include the question about the greatest commandment. It is discussed in the parable of the Good Samaritan however.

A Key Takeaway: No major doctrines are affected by the differences. In all cases, Jesus is asked about the greatest command and responds from two verses in the Old Testament: Deut. 6:4-5 (The Shema) and Lev 19:18.

The Debate: What’s the greatest command?

The lawyers question did not occur in a vacuum, there is a history of Jewish debate on the greatest command.

The lawyer is either asking Jesus his opinion on the matter (perhaps Mark’s version) or he’s testing Jesus’ knowledge and handing of the Law/Torah (perhaps Matthew’s version). Perhaps some of both.

There already existed a range of Jewish opinion and theorizing about the greatest principle of the Torah.

"And you shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Lev 19:18): R. Akiva says: This is an all-embracing principle in the Torah. Ben Azzai says: (Gen 5:1) "This is the numeration of the generations of Adam" — This is an even greater principle. (Sifra Kedoshim 4.12)

The Sifra Kedoshim is a Jewish halakich midrash (legal interpretation) to the book of Leviticus.

In this instance, two Rabbis debate the greatest principle of the Torah. Rabbi Akiva (AD 50-135) believes it’s Lev 19:18. Simeon Ben Azzai (early 2nd century) quotes from Gen 5:1, which may seem odd.

Why would the book of the generations of Adam be the greatest principle?

But he’s only using this as a marker for the entire passage:

Genesis 5:1–2 NRSVue

This is the list of the descendants of Adam. When God created humans, he made them in the likeness of God. Male and female he created them, and he blessed them and called them humans when they were created.

So Ben Azzai thinks the greatest principle was that man was made in God’s image.

There was an incident where Rabban Gamliel married a woman and recited Shema even the first night. His students said to him: Didn’t our teacher teach us that a groom is exempt from the recitation of Shema? He answered them: Nevertheless, I am not listening to you to refrain from reciting Shema, and in so doing preclude myself from the acceptance of the yoke of the Kingdom of Heaven, for even one moment. (m. Ber 2.5)

In the Mishnah, Rabban Gamliel (Paul’s teacher) called the Shema the “yoke of the kingdom of heaven,” indicating the Shema’s level of importance.

A student of Akiva, R. Yehoshua ben Korha (m. Ber 2:2) also calls reciting the Shema the “yoke of the kingdom of heaven.”

The phrasing “yoke of the kingdom of heaven” is remarkably close to Jesus telling his disciples to take on his yoke and Matthew’s preferred term of the “kingdom of heaven”.

Matthew 11:29–30 NRSVue

Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me, for I am gentle and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light.”

Let’s look at another example:

“There was another incident involving one gentile who came before Shammai and said to Shammai: Convert me on condition that you teach me the entire Torah while I am standing on one foot. Shammai pushed him away with the builder’s cubit in his hand. This was a common measuring stick and Shammai was a builder by trade. The same gentile came before Hillel. He converted him and said to him: That which is hateful to you do not do to another; that is the entire Torah, and the rest is its interpretation. Go study.” (b. Shab. 31a)

Hillel the Elder lived circa 30 BC - AD 10, so just slightly overlapping Jesus’ younger years.

The houses of Hillel and Shammai were the two major Pharisee schools of thought, often conflicting with one another.

Rabbinical Judaism largely inherits or more closely aligns with Hillel’s teachings, who is generally less strict than Shammai.

In this incident a Gentile wishes to convert and learn the Torah while standing on one foot - ie, learn it quickly, down to its simplest aspects. Shammai has no interest. Either he doesn’t care for Gentile converts, doesn’t care to teach Gentiles Torah, or he thinks simplifying Torah like this is ridiculous.

But Hillel entertains the idea and comes up with a version of the golden rule. It’s a negative version (as in, he says “do not”) of Jesus’ positive statement

Matthew 7:12 NRSVue

“In everything do to others as you would have them do to you, for this is the Law and the Prophets.

Let’s look at one more example of this ongoing debate:

“[Noah] exhorted his sons to observe righteousness, and to cover the shame of their flesh, and to bless their Creator, and honour father and mother, and love their neighbour, and guard their souls from fornication and uncleanness and all iniquity. For owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth” (Jubilees 7:24-25)

Even before Hillel, the importance of Lev 19:18 was noted by others. Likely made by the Essene sect, the Book of Jubilees (circa 100 BC and earlier) blamed the flood in part on people not loving their neighbors.

What’s the greatest command?

Is it the Shema, the yoke of the kingdom of Heaven (Deut 6:4-5)?

Is it that man’s made in the image of God (Gen 5:1)?

Is it to love your neighbor as yourself (Lev 19:18)?

This is the debate in the air when Jesus is asked about the issue.

It’s not explicit in the Law what the answer to this sort of question is. Those three options all have much to commend in terms of their implications.

Jesus Interprets the Law

We know Jesus interprets the Law in his response by his quotes from Deut 6:4-5 and Lev 19:18 in his response.

Mark 12:31 NRSVue

...There is no other commandment greater than these.”

Mark has a curious feature where the two combined commandments are referred to as a single commandment. Jesus is asked about a greatest (singular) commandment and responds by joining two as one command (singular). How does this work?

What’s happening is that Jesus is demonstrating his legal expertise. He has used common interpretive techniques to resolve a thorny debate.

One of the ways Rabbis would resolve legal debates, answer legal questions and formulate new rulings from the Torah would be to use exegetical rules to derive their conclusions.

These rules were not unanimously agreed on - the Sadducees and Pharisees did not agree either on the rules, their application, or their results. Often the Pharisees wouldn’t agree with one another.

Never-the-less, exegetical techniques were employed to derive answers to questions from the Torah.

“...Hillel the elder expounded seven hermeneutical principles before the elders of Betheira: kal vachomer, gezeirah shavah, shnei kethuvim, kllal ufrat, kayotze bo bemakom acher ("the same applies elsewhere" — i.e., binyan av), davar halamed me'inyano (and davar halamed misofo).” (t. Sanh 7:5)

Back to Hillel the Elder. Hillel is said to have prescribed seven exegetical rules.

It’s debated whether Hillel used all seven of these himself, whether he used only seven or whether he was the originator of these rules or they were handed down to him via tradition.

Some of these rules find correspondence in Greek sources, which probably indicates that Hillel didn’t create these himself.

We’re only focusing on the second one at the moment, though use of these exegetical rules occur throughout the New Testament:

Gezeirah Shavah - Verbal Analogy

In this exegetical method, Rabbis would take disjointed or disconnected scriptures and join them together, usually on an identical word between two passages, but it could be used on a common theme as well. This method of exegesis is found throughout Rabbinic sources.

“Rabbi Yannai says: A verbal analogy should never be lightly regarded in your eyes, as the fact that one is punished with karet for consuming meat of an offering that was sacrificed with the intent to consume it after its appointed time [piggul] is one of the fundamental principles of the Torah, and the verse taught it only through a verbal analogy.” (b. Keritot 5a)

Just as one example, in this passage the Rabbis have combined two texts, one from Lev 19:8 and the other from Lev 7:18. Let’s look at each.

Leviticus 19:8 NRSVue

All who eat it shall be subject to punishment, because they have profaned what is holy to the Lord, and any such person shall be cut off from the people.

In this passage, the penalty for eating the well-being offering from left over meat after its appointed time (notar) was to be “cut off” from the people.

Leviticus 7:18 NRSVue

If any of the flesh of your sacrifice of well-being is eaten on the third day, it shall not be acceptable, nor shall it be credited to the one who offers it; it shall be an abomination, and the one who eats of it shall incur guilt.

But in this passage, the Rabbis interpreted (whether rightly or wrongly) that his is referring to the intent to eat the offering after the appointed time. But the passage only says guilt is incurred. It doesn’t actually specify a punishment. So the legal question is what should the punishment be?

To resolve this the Rabbis used gezeirah shavah, verbal analogy to decide the issue. Lev 19:8 and Lev 7:18 both say the offender “incurs guilt” (using the same word), so they reason that the penalty in one case must also be the penalty in the other case.

Of course, this seemingly violates modern interpretive methods. We can’t just connect this verse here to that verse there because they each use the same word. That’s not how author’s intent works, that’s not how historical-critical methods work, that’s not historical-grammatical methods work.

But there is an unstated assumption that allows them to do this. They believed Torah was a divine and perfect legal document given by the the perfect legal judge. So nothing in the Torah was superfluous. Every detail mattered. They’re essentially doing authorial intent hermeneutics, just with different sets of assumptions about the nature of the text. In their assumptions, Torah is a unified, coherent legal document which originated from God at Mt. Sinai. They presume this from the outset, and have rather negative things to say about anyone who doesn’t take the same view.

This is basically the same view as Jesus:

Matthew 5:18 NRSVue

For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all is accomplished.

Luke 16:17 NRSVue

But it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away than for one stroke of a letter in the law to be dropped.

Deuteronomy 6:5 “You shall love (וְאָ֣הַבְתָּ֔) the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might.”

Leviticus 19:18 “ you shall love (וְאָֽהַבְתָּ֥) your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord.”

In resolving the question about the Torah - which commandment is greatest, Jesus shows his mastery of the scriptures by also using gezeirah shavah, linking Deut 6:5 with Lev 19:18 on the phrase “you shall love.” THe interpretivev method allows Jesus to join two seemingly disjointed laws into one unified law.

As far as we can tell, Jesus is the only one to link two of the disputed greatest principles of the Torah into a single unified command. Thus we have the response from the lawyer in Mark.

Mark 12:32–33 NRSVue

Then the scribe said to him, “You are right, Teacher; you have truly said that ‘he is one, and besides him there is no other’; and ‘to love him with all the heart and with all the understanding and with all the strength’ and ‘to love one’s neighbor as oneself’—this is much more important than all whole burnt offerings and sacrifices.”

In his response, the scribe mirrors the technique back to Jesus in his affirmative response.

“he is one (Deut 6:4), beside him there is no other (Deut 4:39), love him with all your heart, mind and strengh (Deut 6:5), love your neighbor as yourself (Lev 19:18).

The lawyer links Deut 4:39 to Deut 6:4-5 from the word “heart” and links to Lev 19:18 on the word for “love” and gives the appropriate conclusion - these are more important than all the whole burnt offering sand sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22-23).

Some Takeaways

Jesus interprets the Law in Rabbinic fashion.

Jesus views the Law as other Jews of his time did.

Jesus shows his mastery of scriptures by resolving a debated legal question.

Jesus exegetes the greatest command from the Law.

The Greatest Commandment in the Gospels

Now that we know where and how Jesus derived the greatest commandment, we can look at a few further items and note further observations.

The Greatest Commandment shows up in other places in the gospels, perhaps in some places that aren’t obvious at the outset.

The Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37)

The Rich Young Ruler (Mark 10:17-31 // Matt 19:16-30 // Luk 18:18-24)

Mark 10:17–31 “As he was setting out on a journey, a man ran up and knelt before him and asked him, “Good Teacher, what must I do to inherit eternal life?” Jesus said to him, “Why do you call me good? No one is good but God alone. You know the commandments: ‘You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not bear false witness. You shall not defraud. Honor your father and mother.’ ” He said to him, “Teacher, I have kept all these since my youth.” Jesus, looking at him, loved him and said, “You lack one thing; go, sell what you own, and give the money to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; then come, follow me.” When he heard this, he was shocked and went away grieving, for he had many possessions. Then Jesus looked around and said to his disciples, “How hard it will be for those who have wealth to enter the kingdom of God!” And the disciples were perplexed at these words. But Jesus said to them again, “Children, how hard it is to enter the kingdom of God! It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for someone who is rich to enter the kingdom of God.” They were greatly astounded and said to one another, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus looked at them and said, “For mortals it is impossible, but not for God; for God all things are possible.” Peter began to say to him, “Look, we have left everything and followed you.” Jesus said, “Truly I tell you, there is no one who has left house or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or fields for my sake and for the sake of the good news who will not receive a hundredfold now in this age—houses, brothers and sisters, mothers and children, and fields, with persecutions—and in the age to come eternal life. But many who are first will be last, and the last will be first.””

In Mark, we previously observed that when exegeting the greatest command there was a particular emphasis on the scribe’s mind. In the story of the rich young man (Luke: young ruler) we find one of the Shema’s other elements.

We’re keyed in from the get-go that the Shema will likely play in understanding this passage. The man calls Jesus good, and Jesus responds with a reference to the Shema:

Mark 10:18 “Jesus said to him, “Why do you call me good? No one is good but God alone.”

Mark 10:18: οὐδεὶς ἀγαθὸς εἰ μὴ εἷς ὁ θεός

(no one is good but One, God)

Deut 6:4 (LXX): κύριος ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν κύριος εἷς ἐστιν

(The Lord our God is one Lord)

In typical Marcan fashion, he’s also sandwiched the young man’s list of commandments with another reference to the Shema

Mark 10:21: ..ἠγάπησεν αὐτὸν

(loved him)

Deut 6:5: ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου

love the Lord your God

This is likely a major clue to understanding the passage.

In his question to Jesus on what he must do to inherit eternal life, Jesus lists the commandments the man must follow. Once the man indicates that he’s kept all these, Jesus notes he lacks one. Conspicuously absent is the greatest command. In Mark, the greatest command is the combination of Deut 6:4-5 + Lev 19:18 linked via Geizerah Shavah. Matthew is slightly different

Matthew 19:18–19 NRSVue

He said to him, “Which ones?” And Jesus said, “You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not bear false witness. Honor your father and mother. Also, you shall love your neighbor as yourself.”

In Matthew, where the greatest command is Deut 6:5 and the 2nd greatest is Lev 19:18, the absent command is made even more explicit. Matthew includes Lev 19:18 but omits Deut 6:5 from the list of commands the young man has kept. The efffect is the same as in Mark. The command the man lacks is the Shema. In Matthew, it’s specifically Deut 6:5 that he’s lacking. But this is also the same element that is missing in the man’s list in Mark.

Let’s look at some ways the Shema was interpreted at that time:

The Temptation of Jesus