Session 2 Deborah: Encouraging Faith

Introduction

Judges 4:1-5

4:1 See note on Judg 2:11–15 regarding the cycle repeated throughout Judges.

4:1–2. Joshua 11 also records the fall of Hazor, which Joshua burned. Its king at that time was also called Jabin. The Canaanite population seems to have continued until the beginning of Iron Age I (c. 1200 BC). Jabin may have been the king’s name, or it may have been his title, in much the same way the terms Pharaoh, Czar, Caesar, and others are used as titles.

4:2 Jabin king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor. The person bearing the name Jabin here is not to be confused with the Jabin who ruled Hazor at least 30 or 40 years earlier, and who headed an alliance of Canaanite forces against Joshua in Jos 11:1–15. In the ancient Near East, royal names were commonly repeated and even took on the form of dynastic names (e.g., Rameses I–XI). The first part of the name has surfaced in a fragment of a royal letter found at Hazor from the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC addressed to Ibni (= Yabin/Jabin). From Egypt, the topographic list of Rameses II at Karnak includes the entry Qishon of Jabin. The present text identifies Jabin as “king of Canaan,” suggesting he had recaptured for Hazor the dominant position among Canaanite cities that had not fallen into Israelite control. Sisera. Unknown as a Canaanite name. The name seems not to be Semitic, suggesting he may have been a Hittite or Hurrian mercenary like Shamgar in 3:31, or a member of the Sea Peoples. Harosheth Haggoyim. While prevailing opinion understands the first element in this name to mean “forested area,” the fact that Sisera’s forces included 900 chariots, which could be deployed only in coastal and alluvial plains (1:19), renders this interpretation problematic. A more logical solution relates the expression to an Akkadian cognate that means “cultivated land.” Accordingly, Harosheth Haggoyim probably means “cultivated field of the Gentiles,” an explanation that not only suits the fertile alluvial plain between Taanach and Megiddo, but also accords with the present linkage with chariots, the reference to the Canaanite chariot bases in the river plains in 1:19 and the location of the battle in 5:19.

4:2 Joshua also defeated a king named Jabin from Hazor in Josh 11:1–11. Jabin was likely a dynastic name used at Hazor, a practice known elsewhere in the ancient Near East (e.g., the multiple pharaohs of the 19th and 20th Dynasties named Ramesses; the name Abimelech for two different kings in Gen 20; 26).

More problematic is the reference to Hazor itself. In Joshua 11, Hazor was utterly destroyed. It was not rebuilt until the time of Solomon. Hazor’s subsequent power base may have arisen from the vestiges of the Hazor dynasty who escaped Joshua’s conquest—a distinct possibility given Israel’s general failure to drive out the Canaanites as described in Judg 1. Parts of Hazor may have been reoccupied by the time of chs. 4–5.

The spelling of this proper name may indicate someone not of native Canaanite ancestry. Sisera does not appear among the numerous Canaanite names available in the archaeological-literary record.

4:3 nine hundred chariots fitted with iron. In view of the claim of Thutmose III in the fifteenth century BC to have captured 924 chariots at Megiddo, including the chariot of the ruler of Megiddo, which was decorated with gold, this reference is feasible. Whether the number is interpreted literally or as epic hyperbole, in the light of 1:19, this superior technology had rendered the Canaanites invincible to Israelite armies marching out in their own strength.

4:3. Sisera, Jabins’ commander, had nine hundred iron chariots. This is a huge chariot army, but not unparalleled in the ancient world. The Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III spoke of capturing over 900 chariots at Megiddo (c. 1470 BC). A chariot army required substantial state resources. One could compare the development and deployment of a chariot army to the building of a modern aircraft-carrier battle group. The same resource commitment, technology research and development, personnel training and support, and logistic infrastructure went into fielding such an army. Chariot soldiers could not be militia or conscripts, but had to have been professionals who devoted their full time to training and preparations. In the feudal structure of Canaan these men would have been land-owning nobility with servants to care for their properties.

Chariot horses were specially bred and trained for combat. Most horses will not voluntarily proceed into the kinds of situations pictured on monuments. They must be trained to charge, trample, and obey commands under noisy, frightening circumstances. Such horses would have been quite expensive and would have required large pastureland and training areas.

Hazor’s lower city, nearly a square mile in area, was once believed to consist mostly of the Canaanite chariot camp. However, Israeli archaeologist Yagael Yadin’s excavations have shown the lower city to have been a relatively densely populated area during the Late Bronze Age (NEAEHL, 597). The horses and chariots may have been housed in the surrounding countryside. Certainly the professional troops for such an army could not have all lived in Hazor.

4:3 See 1:19 and note. The Iron Age in Canaan began ca. 1200 bc.

The wording points to the cyclical narrative that will repeat throughout the book. See note on 2:11–15.

4:4 A prophet was, broadly speaking, someone who spoke for God. Other women prophets include Miriam (Exod 15:20) and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14). Receiving revelation from God is not the normal role of a judge in the book of Judges. Most of the judges are only described as warriors leading the tribes of Israel into battle against their enemies.

No other judge, except for Samuel (also called a prophet), dispenses revelation from God. Consequently, Deborah’s role may be different than the other judges. The description of her leadership in Judg 4:5 reflects a role more like the judges appointed by Moses in Exod 18:13–26. Moses links this function as judge to divine revelation when he says the people come to him to inquire of God (Exod 18:15) and he tells them God’s instructions (Exod 18:16). Deborah is also different than other judges in that she is never specifically described as being raised up by Yahweh as a deliverer, having the Spirit of Yahweh come upon her, or as “saving” Israel (yasha') (compare Judg 3:9–10,15; 6:34). However, her role as prophet and involvement in military strategy suggests that these descriptors broadly apply to her. Essentially, Deborah and Barak share the traditional role of judge—with Barak acting as the combat leader, under the direction of Deborah (5:12–13). The precise date of Deborah’s efforts is unknown; the overall timeframe of the judges is roughly 1210–1051 bc.

Reflecting the patriarchal culture of the ancient world, the text identifies Deborah, a prominent woman, with reference to her relationship with a man (compare Miriam in Exod 15:20; Huldah in 2 Kgs 22:14; Anna in Luke 2:36).

The name Lappidoth means “flashes” or “torches.” Since the name Barak means “lightning,” Barak may have been Deborah’s husband. However, according to Judg 4:5, Deborah (and presumably her husband) lived in Ephraim, whereas Barak is from Kadesh in the tribal allotment of Naphtali (v. 6).

4:4 a prophet, the wife. This epithet brings Deborah’s profession and gender to the reader’s attention. A prophet serves as a spokesperson for deity to the people. Not only was the institution of prophecy widespread in the ancient Near East, but Mesopotamian prophecy in particular involved an unusually large proportion of female prophets. In the patricentric world of the OT, few if any standing leadership offices were open to women. By contrast, there seems to have been no hesitation in Israel to engage women as prophets. This may be because in Israel the prophetic office had an ad hoc character. Whereas elsewhere, especially in the Neo-Assyrian courts, prophets tended to function as part of the courts of kings, in Israel they were engaged directly by Yahweh, and in monarchic times especially often worked in opposition to kings.

4:4–5. Deborah, who was judging Israel at that time, may have been a “seer”-type prophet, whose visions under the palm tree provided inspiration for the people. The culture of the era would not normally have supported a woman in military and political leadership, so the situation speaks of the probable lack of qualified men. She is an “exception that proves the rule”—that is, the rule being God’s intention that men provide spiritual leadership (Gn 2:20, 23; 1Tm 2:11–15). The extraordinary circumstances around her serving as a judge in Israel indicate just how unusual it was for a woman to exercise this kind of leadership. Deborah’s palm tree must have been a well-known landmark, but of course it is impossible to identify it today. Palm trees of various kinds are common throughout Israel.

4:5 held court. This reading reflects too legal an interpretation of the Hebrew verb, which means simply “to sit.” Deborah functions here as the agent through whom the people expect a divine word regarding their present crisis—a common role of prophets. Seated beneath the palm, the people come to her for a divine judgment on the crisis created by the Canaanites. The divine response is to call Barak to rescue the people.

4:5 The association between trees and divine encounters is well known in the patriarchal narratives (Gen 12:6; 13:18; 18:1; Josh 24:26).

b. Deborah the Prophetess Called on Barak the Soldier (4:4–10)

Judges 4:6-9

4:6–10. Deborah’s involvement with leaders from Naphtali and Zebulun (v. 6) indicates the national scope of the Canaanite problem at this point. Barak’s home was Kedesh of Naphtali, overlooking the Hula Valley in the Lebanon range, about 16 miles north of the north end of the Sea of Galilee. The Kedesh in vv. 9–10, which was used as a meeting place, cannot reasonably be the same place. This Kedesh is probably near the south end of the Sea of Galilee and the slopes of Mount Tabor. From the northern slopes of Tabor one could see ten thousand men gathered for battle, but they would be hidden from the Canaanite forces in Jezreel to the south.

4:6, 10 ten thousand men. On this seemingly high number, see note on 1:4.

4:6 At 1,300 feet high, Mount Tabor was an unmistakable meeting place. The mountain marked the boundary between Naphtali and Zebulun. Deborah appoints Barak to lead the Israelite army.

Deborah’s words in Judg 4:6–7 illustrate her role as prophetess (see note on v. 4). She tells Barak of Yahweh’s promise to deliver Sisera into his hand.

4:7 lead Sisera … to the Kishon River. The flat plains would normally favor chariots but the overflowing river (5:20–21) would have muddied the battlefield and bogged down the chariots, neutralizing their advantage.

4:8 Barak’s hesitancy is not necessarily a mark of cowardice, but it may reflect a lack of faith. He feels Deborah’s presence would ensure Yahweh’s presence. However, Deborah has just assured him that Yahweh intends to give the enemy into his hand. His insistence on Deborah’s presence may signal doubt in the trustworthiness of her message.

4:9 Another will receive the praise, not Barak (vv. 21–22).

Judges 5:1-5

5:1–2. The words the leaders led in Israel are parallel to the words the people volunteered. The enigmatic term pera (leaders, NASB) must be translated as something to do with leadership—in contrast to the people who volunteered. Ugaritic suggests a leadership function.

5:2 The Hebrew phrasing here, which refers to long hair, can be understood as idiomatic for leadership (compare Deut 32:42). The idiom alludes to the practice of leaving hair uncut to fulfill a vow (Nu 6:5, 18).

The Hebrew phrase biphro'a pera'ot (literally, “when locks lengthen”) refers to letting hair grow long or hang loose (Lev 10:6; Ezek 44:20). Leaving the hair uncut relates to taking a religious vow, and letting the hair hang loose can be a sign of mourning. The connotations of leadership may derive from the concept of being fully dedicated to religious service (Num 6:5, 18)—a practice consistent with preparation for holy war (see note on Josh 6:16).

5:3 The singers address kings and princes everywhere to draw attention to Yahweh and this victory.

5:3–5. The song challenges kings to hear and rulers to give ear. Sing (shir) and sing praise (zāmar) are technical terms also found in the Psalms (e.g., 49:1, “hear,” “give ear”; 30:4, 12, “sing”—the participle mizmor is generally translated “psalm”). The attitude toward the kings of the earth establishes an anticipatory pattern: that is, the author is looking forward to the day when the nations and their kings will bow and worship the King of kings (Ps 2:8; 110:1).

5:4–5 These verses describe a theophany—or appearance of God—associated with the people’s journey to Canaan: It alludes to the pillar of fire and cloud and the Angel of Yahweh (Exod 23:20–23).

5:4 Seir and Edom are south of Canaan, reflecting the Israelite tradition that Yahweh had journeyed with Israel from the south via the Transjordan (Num 33:37; Deut 2; compare Deut 33:1–2; Hab 3:3).

5:4 When you, Lord, went out from Seir, when you marched from the land of Edom. The song portrays Yahweh as a divine warrior marching forth from Seir/Edom to the aid of his people. In terms reminiscent of his descent on Mount Sinai in Ex 19, the song celebrates the arrival of Yahweh. Scholars have long been intrigued by the association of Yahweh, not only with Sinai (v. 5), but also with Seir/Edom in this text, as well as in several other ancient and/or archaizing poems, such as Dt 33:2, in which Yahweh is described as coming from Sinai/Seir/Mount Paran; Hab 3:3, in which God comes from Teman/Mount Paran. In Ps 78:40 God encounters Israel in the wasteland. This portrayal of Yaweh marching forth from the south (Sinai/Seir/Edom) represents a deliberate polemic against the perspectives cherished by the kings whom the poet has summoned to listen (v. 3)—Canaanites, whose god Baal resided in the north, on Mount Zaphon. Yahweh had triumphed over Baal. Seir. Means “hairy.” It functions as a personal name in Ge 36:20–21; 1Ch 1:38, identifying the ancestor of an ethnic group associated with the Horites, who lived in the hill country of Seir (Ge 14:6). But elsewhere Seir is always a geographic designation for the mountainous region south of the Dead Sea occupied by the Edomites. Most agree that these mountains are to be located to the east of the Arabah, south of Moab. However, perhaps because of the encroachment of the Seir-based Edomites into the territory adjoining Judah, sometimes the name is applied to the region west of the Arabah. Edom. See note on Ge 36:9.

5:5 the One of Sinai. This epithet occurs only here and in the derivative Ps 68:8, and may be considered an archaic title of Yahweh. Yahweh’s status is reinforced by the storm imagery, which the Canaanite religion generally associates with Baal as the “rider of the clouds.” The poet draws from this well-known imagery to describe Yahweh as riding the clouds to the aid of his people. At the same time, the storm imagery anticipates the cosmic aspects of the victory later in the poem (vv. 19–21).

Sacred Trees in Israelite Religion

Sites marked by trees often became associated with appearances of Yahweh that involved divine revelation.

Examples:

, the oak at Shechem commemorated Yahweh’s appearance to Abram with the promises of the covenant.

Genesis 12:6–7 ESV

Abram passed through the land to the place at Shechem, to the oak of Moreh. At that time the Canaanites were in the land. Then the Lord appeared to Abram and said, “To your offspring I will give this land.” So he built there an altar to the Lord, who had appeared to him.

, it marked the place where Jacob buried his family’s idols to fulfill a vow to Yahweh.

Genesis 35:4 ESV

So they gave to Jacob all the foreign gods that they had, and the rings that were in their ears. Jacob hid them under the terebinth tree that was near Shechem.

, Joshua erected a stone at the oak of Shechem containing a portion of the Word of God. The site was chosen for its significance as a holy place (miqdash, “sanctuary”) for the God of Israel.

Due to these events, the oak at Shechem became a sacred site; it was considered a place of divine residence and encounter many years after the patriarchs. In Josh 24:25–27, Joshua erected a stone at the oak of Shechem containing a portion of the Word of God. The site was chosen for its significance as a holy place (miqdash, “sanctuary”) for the God of Israel.

Joshua 24:25–27 ESV

So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day, and put in place statutes and rules for them at Shechem. And Joshua wrote these words in the Book of the Law of God. And he took a large stone and set it up there under the terebinth that was by the sanctuary of the Lord. And Joshua said to all the people, “Behold, this stone shall be a witness against us, for it has heard all the words of the Lord that he spoke to us. Therefore it shall be a witness against you, lest you deal falsely with your God.”

, Gideon’s son, Abimelech, was declared king “by the oak of the pillar at Shechem.”

In Judg 9:5–6, Gideon’s son, Abimelech, was declared king “by the oak of the pillar at Shechem.” The “pillar” at the town of Shechem also appears later in the same chapter. There, the tree is associated with divine revelation (Judg 9:34–37).

Judges 9:5–6 ESV

And he went to his father’s house at Ophrah and killed his brothers the sons of Jerubbaal, seventy men, on one stone. But Jotham the youngest son of Jerubbaal was left, for he hid himself. And all the leaders of Shechem came together, and all Beth-millo, and they went and made Abimelech king, by the oak of the pillar at Shechem.

contains a similar association of a tree with divine revelation. There, the prophetess Deborah customarily sat under “the palm tree of Deborah” to fulfill her ministry.

Judges 4:4–5 ESV

Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim, and the people of Israel came up to her for judgment.

, God tells David to listen for the sound of marching in the tops of balsam trees as a sign to attack the Philistines. This guidance was supernatural.

2 Samuel 5:24–25 ESV

And when you hear the sound of marching in the tops of the balsam trees, then rouse yourself, for then the Lord has gone out before you to strike down the army of the Philistines.” And David did as the Lord commanded him, and struck down the Philistines from Geba to Gezer.

Later in Israel’s history, the land was apparently dotted with trees (or pillars, to mimic a tree) to mark the location of false gods and their place of worship. These “high places” and their pillars (matstsevoth) were ubiquitous. Pagan tree symbols were particularly associated with the goddess Asherah (1 Kgs 14:23; 2 Kgs 17:10; Jer 17:2; compare Deut 16:21).

This unfortunate evolution profaned a sacred symbol of Israel and Yahweh’s presence with the nation. God angrily spews judgment of such places in Ezekiel 6:13 (compare Jer 3:6).

Theophany in the Old Testament

A theophany is an appearance of God that people can discern—not all appearances of God are recognized by people. The term comes from the Greek theos, “god,” and the verb phaino, “to appear” or “be revealed.”

Since people cannot possibly process God’s nature as a disembodied, formless spirit, theophany allows God to make His presence known in a physical way that people can discern through their senses. Theophanies also address the problem in the Old Testament that people cannot withstand direct contact with the unfiltered divine presence (Exod 33:20; compare Deut. 5:24; Judg. 6:22, 23; 13:22). Theophany both protects people, and allows for contact with God.

Theophanies in the Old Testament occur when God takes form in the natural world, as a phenomena (like wind, spirit, or the burning bush) or when God takes human form (like the Angel of Yahweh).

Appearances in Nature

Thunderstorm or whirlwind theophanies are common (Exod 15:7–10; 19:16, 19; Deut 33:26–29; Ezek 1:4; Hab 3:8, 11; Psa 18, 29, 50, 77, 83, 97, 104, 144). Other theophanies are more obscure, like in Genesis 3:8, when Adam and Eve hear “the sound of Yahweh God walking in the garden at the windy time of day.” Some of the language is anthropomorphic, requiring a body (“walking”), and might belong more properly to the theophanies that involve God taking human form. The “windy time of day” phrase, however, may be indicative of the whirlwind motifs found in many other Old Testament passages.

Other natural elements serve as theophanies, such as a pillar fire or cloud (Gen 15:17; Exod 3:1–4; 13:21–22; 14:19–20; Num 10:33–34; 14:13–14), as well as fire and smoke (Exod 24:15–18; 40:34–38; Num 9:15–23; Deut 1:33; 4:9–40; 1 Kgs 8:10–13).

Appearances as a Person

The earliest theophany in human form—aside from the possibility of Genesis 3:8—is God’s appearance to Abraham. Stephen comments on this appearance in Acts 7:2–4: “Men—brothers and fathers—listen: The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham while he was in Mesopotamia, before he settled in Haran.” The word “appeared” indicates that the call of Abraham was a visible phenomenon. But Stephen’s reference to the theophany of Abraham is not the first time it is mentioned. When passages in Genesis are understood collectively, it is clear that God appeared to Abraham as a man—Stephen’s source is either Genesis 12:1–6 or Genesis 15:1–6. These appearances culminate in Genesis 18, where the embodied Yahweh eats a meal in Abraham’s presence. That Abraham appears to recognize one of the men as Yahweh suggests he had seen this man before. In the Gospel of John, Jesus Himself refers to these episodes as appearances. In John 8:56, Jesus tells His Jewish antagonists that God appeared to Abraham prior to Jesus’ incarnation: “Abraham your father rejoiced that he would see my day, and he saw it and was glad.” The Jews object to this claim, which prompts Jesus’ response, “before Abraham was, I am” (John 8:58)—connecting this appearance to His own personhood.

The Divine Name Used in Reference to a Person

Genesis 18:1–2 uses the divine name, Yahweh, when referring to one of the three men that appeared to Abraham. While it is not clear at the beginning of the narrative that Abraham recognizes Yahweh, we learn from what follows that he did. The humanity of Yahweh is apparent when He and the other two “men” eat (Gen 18:22; compare Gen 19:1; Gen 18:3–8). Abraham’s objection in God issuing destruction on Sodom further indicates he is addressing Yahweh.

Yahweh appears to Isaac in Genesis 26:2 and Genesis 26:23–24. His next appearance is to Isaac’s son, Jacob in Genesis 28:10–13. Later, in Genesis 32, Jacob wrestles with a “man” whom Hosea later calls elohim (Hos 12:3–4). Jacobs agrees with this in Genesis 48:15–16, when He calls the “man” the Angel of Yahweh—Yahweh in human form as He had appeared to Abraham (the terms Yahweh and Angel of Yahweh are used synonymously earlier). After the wrestling, God “appears” again to Jacob, “going up” from before him (Gen 35:9, 11–13).

Yahweh as the Word

In one of Yahweh’s appearances in human form to Abraham, He is referred to as “the word of Yahweh” (Gen 15:1). This description seems related to the Apostle John’s description of Jesus as “the word” and God “in flesh” (John 1:1–3, 14).

Similar language is used in 1 Samuel 3:1–21, where the young Samuel’s sleep is disturbed by a voice calling for him. The voice ends up being the “word of Yahweh” in human form. Samuel’s experience of the “word” is both visual and auditory. Once Eli understands what is happening, he instructs Samuel to respond; the word then comes again and stands before him—God’s Word embodied. Jeremiah’s call as a prophet goes one step further: the word, identified as Yahweh, physically touches him (Jer 1:9).

Theophanies set the precedent for Jesus. They help make sense of why and how God chose to appear in human form. The difference with Jesus, though, is that He doesn’t return to heaven—until He dies for the sins of humanity first.