Why Archeology Matters for Bible Study

Why Archaeology Matters for Bible Study

Recent Discoveries Sharpen Our View of the Ancient World

Recent Discoveries Sharpen Our View of the Ancient World

By Craig A. Evans

Does archaeology matter? It certainly does! Archaeology can clarify or correct our assumptions and conclusions about the past. Sometimes archaeology confirms the events described in ancient narratives. This is especially so in the case of biblical archaeology.

The discipline has been called “biblical archaeology” for more than a century precisely because the Bible and archaeology have a mutually clarifying relationship. The Bible provides helpful information for the archaeologist, such as where to dig and how to understand what is unearthed, and archaeology provides helpful information for the Bible scholar, clarifying events, customs, and figures described in the text. Although in the early and mid-20th century archaeologists were often motivated to prove this or that about the Bible, archaeology has since matured. Archaeologists now go about their work asking how their discoveries clarify the world of the Bible.

Craig A. Evans

Ongoing archaeological digs in Israel and elsewhere in the land of the Bible continue to yield important discoveries. One team working in old Jerusalem is uncovering what appears to be the palace and administrative buildings of King David and his successors. Just last year, this team found a clay seal (called a bulla) that appears to read “Isaiah the prophet.” Two years earlier, only three meters from the very spot where the Isaiah’s seal was found, another seal reading “Hezekiah” was discovered.

As anyone familiar with the books of Isaiah and 2 Kings will know, King Hezekiah and Isaiah were contemporaries and sometimes interacted with one another. Moreover, these stories give the impression that Isaiah had access to the king’s palace. Finding these seals, both from the same period of time, almost atop one another clarifies and confirms important aspects of the biblical narrative.

Only a few months ago the Israel Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a portion of a limestone column on which was inscribed the name “Jerusalem,” fully spelled out in Aramaic as Yerushalayim. The inscription, which dates to the first century BC, reads “Hananiah son of Dudolos of Jerusalem” and is the oldest inscription of this nature excavators have found. Surprisingly, inscriptions mentioning Jerusalem are quite rare—even in Jerusalem—which makes this find very important.

Backing up Scripture

Archaeology has shed light on what was perhaps the sharpest disagreement between leaders in the early Christian church. In his letter to the churches of Galatia, Paul recounts what he said to Peter (also called “Cephas”) after Peter, intimidated by the arrival of “men from James,” stopped eating meals with the gentile Christians in Antioch: “I said to Cephas before them all, ‘If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews?’ ” (). Why would Paul say that Peter was living “like a Gentile and not like a Jew”? After all, when Peter had a vision and heard a voice from heaven commanding him to eat non-kosher food, he responded, “No, Lord; for I have never eaten anything that is common or unclean” (). It sounds like Peter avoided non-kosher food. So was Paul being fair?

The answer lies in the fact that Paul had been a devout Pharisee, who took kosher food laws and purity very seriously, whereas Peter, who had not been a Pharisee, grew up in Bethsaida, on the north shore of the Sea of Galilee, just inside the territory of Gaulanitis. Bethsaida, in fact, was not in Galilee, nor was Bethsaida’s population entirely Jewish. Gentiles lived in Bethsaida, and the faunal remains (animal bones) recovered in archaeological excavations there over the past 30 years or so are not entirely kosher. Some 3 percent of the animal and fish bones at Bethsaida are non-kosher, while 97 percent are kosher. Compare that to the findings at the city of Sepphoris (the capital of Galilee), where the faunal remains from prior to AD 70 are 100 percent kosher. This means some people in Bethsaida were eating wild boar and catfish, both of which were unclean and not to be eaten by Torah-observant Jews.

If wild boar and catfish were being eaten in Bethsaida, it is more than probable that other rules and regulations regarding food were not being observed properly—at least from the Pharisees’ point of view. This is why Paul found it ridiculous that Peter withdrew from the gentiles when men from James (the brother of Jesus and head of the church in Jerusalem) visited Antioch.

Illuminating the ancient context

Ongoing work at Bethsaida, which sits atop a rocky precipice overlooking the Sea of Galilee to the south, may shed light on Jesus’ remarkable statement to Peter in Matthew. Jesus assures Peter that “on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it” (). Jesus probably uttered this in the year AD 30, the year in which Philip, the Roman governor of Gaulanitis, announced that he planned to build a temple on the rocky precipice of Bethsaida and change the town’s name to Julias to honor the recently deceased Livia Julia, widow of the great emperor Augustus.

One can only imagine the outrage most Jews would have felt over Philip’s plan. Jesus’ bold statement that he would found his church on the rock and that hell itself would not prevail against it may well have been a form of pushing back. As it turns out, Philip died in AD 34, and there is no evidence he managed to build the promised temple for Livia.

Here’s another important question for New Testament scholars: Just how devout were Galilean Jews, and what were their feelings toward the temple in Jerusalem? Recent archaeological discoveries have shed significant light on such matters. A few years ago, first-century Magdala was finally discovered and, along with it, a synagogue came to light, adding to the growing number of pre-AD 70 synagogues that have been found. What was especially intriguing about the synagogue at Magdala was the decorated rectangular stone sitting in the middle of the floor facing south, toward Jerusalem. Archaeologists are confident that the artwork on the stone is intended to represent the temple, complete with the iconic seven-branched candelabrum (menorah), the table of the Presence, columns, and other architectural features for which the Jewish temple was known.

Some researchers wondered if the Magdala synagogue stone was one of a kind. But no, another decorated stone has been found in the fourth- or fifth-century synagogue now being excavated at Horvat Kur, only minutes from Magdala. This decorated stone, which has been dated to the first century, was found embedded in one of the walls. It seems to have served as a sacred artifact or memorial. Whatever its purpose, the stone shows that more than one Galilean synagogue focused on the temple in Jerusalem, suggesting that Galilean Jews were probably very devout and committed to Israel’s historic faith—including and especially their famous temple. The reason the ruling priests of Jerusalem may have viewed Galileans with misgivings was probably not because they were liberal and inclined toward Greek culture. Based on these archaeological findings, it’s more likely the Jerusalem priests were concerned because Galilean Jews were very zealous—and perhaps prone to insurrection.

Filling in details

One more recent archaeological find should be mentioned. Three times in the Gospel of Mark (4:25; 5:20; 7:31) we hear of a region in Israel called the Decapolis (“10 city”). From other sources we learn that these Greek-oriented cities included Abila, Gadara, Gerasa (or Jerash), Hippos, Pella, Scythopolis, and others. One of the others is Capitolias, located in northern Jordan and founded in the first century AD. Archaeological work has been under way at this site for years, but a discovery in 2016—reported only recently—has garnered a lot of attention.

One of the wall paintings found at Capitolias.

One of the wall paintings found at Capitolias.

Road workers at Capitolias uncovered a Roman tomb, which is part of a necropolis located just east of the city’s theater. What has created the excitement among archaeologists is the discovery of several wall paintings that exhibit more than 200 figures, including gods, humans, and animals. The paintings give expression to a narrative that seems to focus on the founding of Capitolias. Archaeologists have described the artwork as something akin to modern comic books. As the characters build the city, they speak, often describing what they are doing (“I am cutting stone”) or what is happening to them (“Alas for me; I am dead!”). Some 60 texts have been identified, and several have been translated. Curiously, the characters in the artwork are Greek, but the language they speak is Aramaic.

The main takeaway, at least for now, is the idea that the gods themselves assist humans in founding and building their city. Scholars have always known that cities in late antiquity revered local deities, as well as the major universal deities such as Zeus and Apollo. The discovery at Capitolias throws new light on the subject. It also clarifies the nature of the pagan world, situated right in the Jewish homeland. Jesus himself walked through the Decapolis and surely was aware of this paganism and how it was at odds with Israel’s historic faith.

These are but a few of the examples of archaeological finds that shed light on the world of the Bible. These discoveries—and no doubt there will be more!—help us understand the Bible better and bring the past to life.[1]

[1] Evans, C. A. (2019). Cover Story: Why Archaeology Matters for Bible Study: Recent Discoveries Sharpen Our View of the Ancient World. Bible Study Magazine, 11(3), 16–20.

backdrops

Major Sites in Israel for Biblical Archaeology

By David B. Schreiner

Israel is bursting with archaeological sites, and flocks of graduate students, professional researchers, and laypeople visit the country every summer to join the demanding but rewarding work of excavation. Some sites, like Tel Shimron, are relatively new, while others, such as Megiddo, boast decades of continual excavation. This map shows a selection of key sites within the modern borders of Israel. These locations (listed below from south to north, roughly) have proven to be extremely important for understanding the culture of ancient Israel.

Beersheba

A site linked with Israel’s patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Beersheba’s urban development is a case study in the growth of Judean culture during Iron Age II (roughly 1000–586 BC).

Lachish

Judah’s second-most important city (after Jerusalem). Lachish was destroyed violently twice, first by the Assyrians (701 BC) and later by the Babylonians (587/86 BC). In 1935, excavators working amid the debris of a guardhouse found shards of pottery with Hebrew writing. The so-called “Lachish Letters” (below) give accounts of Judah’s final days before the Babylonian invasion.

Ashkelon

A critical site for understanding the culture of the Philistines, a frequent enemy of the Israelites in the Old Testament. Ashkelon (below) was excavated for decades and only recently closed. In 2016, excavation of a Philistine cemetery allowed a diverse set of sophisticated analyses (such as DNA profiling).

Copyright 2004 The Virtual Bible; used with permission.

Tel-Miqne

The biblical city of Ekron. Due to its olive industry, the city became prominent during Iron Age II (roughly 1000–586 BC). Findings from Tel-Miqne have shed light on the policies of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which dominated the region during the Bible’s divided monarchy period (beginning in ).

Jerusalem

Due to the city’s political situation, ancient Jerusalem is extremely difficult to excavate. However, an area called the City of David—thought to be Jerusalem’s oldest settlement—is currently being excavated.

Qumran

A Jewish sect lived here around the time of Jesus. In 1946–47, shepherds found more than 900 manuscripts in caves near Qumran. These manuscripts, known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, have been dated to 250 BC–50 AD, and roughly 200 have material from the Hebrew Bible.

Jericho

One of Israel’s most famous sites, Jericho dates to about 10,000 BC. It was occupied, destroyed, and re-occupied many times, producing multiple layers of archaeological evidence. The layer called “City IV” is important for dating the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt and their settlement in Canaan. Sadly, the site is heavily eroded (below), hindering any future excavation.

Shiloh

An early cultic and sociopolitical center. For more on Shiloh, see Scott Stripling’s article below: “Unearthing Israel’s First Capital.”

What’s a cultic site?

In biblical and archaeological studies, the terms “cult” and “cultic” are often used in a technical sense referring to a system of worship. These terms come from the Latin word cultus, which simply means “worship.”

Mount Ebal

Very likely the site of Joshua’s altar (). For more on Mount Ebal, see Ralph K. Hawkins’ article below: “Joshua’s Altar: Myth or Reality?”

Caesarea Maritima

Built by Herod the Great in honor of Caesar Augustus, Caesarea Maritima provides a case study in Herodian policy and royal exploits.

Megiddo

Having been excavated for decades, Megiddo is a benchmark site for assessing the region’s history and Israel’s cultural development through time.

Tel Shimron

A fortified city of the Canaanites conquered by Joshua and the Israelites (; ). Excavations began in 2017, seeking to understand the role this settlement played in the history and economics of the Jezreel Valley and Galilean hills.

What’s a tel?

The term “tel” (or “tell”) comes from Arabic and means “hill” or “mound.” It appears in many place-names, like Tel-Miqne and Tel Dan. In archaeology, a tel is a mound that has formed from the debris accumulating at a site where people lived for hundreds or thousands of years.

Sepphoris

A major city in Galilee during Jesus’s ministry, located about four miles from Nazareth. During the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus, Sepphoris was the capital of Herod Antipas, who ruled the region. Although Sepphoris (below) isn’t mentioned in the Bible, excavations there offer insights about Galilee during the time of Jesus.

A major city in Galilee during Jesus’s ministry, located about four miles from Nazareth. During the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus, Sepphoris was the capital of Herod Antipas, who ruled the region. Although Sepphoris (below) isn’t mentioned in the Bible, excavations there offer insights about Galilee during the time of Jesus.

Sepphoris photo by Oren Rozen; reprinted under license from commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sepphoris_(Tzippori)_290314_02.jpg.

A major city in Galilee during Jesus’s ministry, located about four miles from Nazareth. During the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus, Sepphoris was the capital of Herod Antipas, who ruled the region. Although Sepphoris (below) isn’t mentioned in the Bible, excavations there offer insights about Galilee during the time of Jesus.

Sepphoris photo by Oren Rozen; reprinted under license from commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sepphoris_(Tzippori)_290314_02.jpg.

Capernaum

Home of the apostle Peter and center of Jesus’ ministry in Galilee. Excavators at Capernaum discovered a house under a Byzantine church, and some speculate it may have been Peter’s home.

Hazor

Featured throughout the Old Testament, Hazor was a strategic site in northern Galilee. Its destruction in the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC) has been cited as evidence to support the biblical narratives about the conquest of Canaan.

Tel Dan

One of two cultic sites constructed by Israel’s King Jeroboam I. Tel Dan is known for its gate system, which dates to the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC). In 1993–94, excavators found fragments of an Aramaic inscription mentioning the “House of David.” This artifact, called the Tel Dan Stele (below), supports the Bible’s account of the Davidic dynasty ruling over Judah.

David B. Schreiner teaches Old Testament at Wesley Biblical Seminary in Jackson, Mississippi.[1]

[1] Schreiner, D. B. (2019). Backdrops: Major Sites in Israel for Biblical Archaeology. Bible Study Magazine, 11(3), 22–23.